Followers

Tuesday, August 31, 2021

Proverbs 1:1-19 -- A Parable

Introduction

I begin a study on the book of Proverbs based on the assumption that it is a compilation that has been assembled over an extended period based on a thematic plan.  My purpose was to identify that plan and determine what linguistic structures are used to implement it. The top-level structure of the book includes three major divisions:

Ch 1-9 contain extended passages each of which is devoted to a single theme or set of related themes.  One or more of these extended passages, or vignettes, in chapter 1 and chapters 8 and 9 take the form of parables.  Each parable in chapter 1 examines one aspect of how the practice of wisdom versus that of a fool impacts one’s life.  The parable of chapter 8 personifies wisdom as the principal attribute of YHWH, and that of chapter 9 personifies wisdom as she attempts to teach the sons of Adam.

Ch 10 – 24 contain short sayings consisting of no more than one to three verses.  Each of these proverbs either emphasizes the way of wisdom in a particular situation or contrasts the conduct of a wise man with that of a fool.

Ch 25 –31 contains another bock of extended passages, or vignettes, that were added after the time of Solomon.

The phrase ‘the proverbs of ….’ or ‘the words of ….’ occurs in ch 1:1, ch 10:1, ch 25:1, ch 30:1, and ch 31:1, indicating that the book is composed of several (at least 5) different compilations.  This may be an explanation for the existence of some duplication and for several statements that appear to be in direct contradiction to one another.

Outline for Chapters 1 and 2

1:1-6  Introduction

 Proverbs provide tools for wisdom, prudence, and discernment.  The wise man will attend and thereby increase the scope of his life skills (wisdom, חכמה).

 1:7-9  Semantic Glue

The fear of YHWH is the foundation of knowledge; the discipline of your father and the instruction of your mother are its building blocks.

1:10-19  The effect of bad influence (the first vignette, a parable)

 Allowing yourself to be influenced by wicked people will cause you to share in their destruction, because their own actions will be returned upon them.

1:20-The effect of living apart from wisdom (the second vignette, a parable)

Living without the habitual practice of wisdom will render its benefits inaccessible at the point of greatest need, but those who practice wisdom will dwell in security. 

2:1-9 – If you attend to my instruction and earnestly seek understanding, YHWH will build wisdom into your life.

2:10-22 – When wisdom is resident within your heart, it will prevent you from becoming ensnared either by the wayward man or the sexual enticements of the strange woman, both of whom will lead to destruction.

Chapter 2 presents the positive alternative to the enticement of ch 1:10-19.  It partially echoes the admonition in ch 1:7-9, but it presents a far greater promise.  Not only will the practice of wisdom spare you from certain destruction, but it offers the promise of a long and secure life in the land, the place of YHWH’s blessing.

Detailed Notes on The Introduction and First Vignette 

1 The proverbs of Solomon, son of David, king of Israel

2 To know wisdom and discipline, to teach (give understanding about) words of discernment

3 To gain (take possession of) the discipline of prudence, righteousness, judgement, and equity

4 To give prudence to the simple ones, knowledge and discretion to the youth.

5 A wise man will hear and gain learning, and a discerning man acquires counsel

6 To understand a proverb and a satire, words of the sages and their riddles.

 The first verse is either a superscription or the subject of a verbless clause completed by verses 2 through 4.  These latter three verses are a string of infinitive construct clauses that define the purpose of the book.  (This collection of proverbs is intended to accomplish the following: …)  The simple words hmlV ylvm form a construct chain, but the nature of the relationship between Solomon and the proverbs that follow is not specifically defined.  This ascription is found here and in verse 10:1a, so the content of the first 24 chapters of this book is presented as the direct work of Solomon.  Verse 25:1a attributes the content of the following five chapters to the Solomon but indicates that this material was added during the time of Hezekiah.  Then, the content of chapter 30 is attributed to Agur son of Jakeh, and that of chapter 31 to King Lemuel.  According to the existing text, the initial corpus of proverbs was assembled by Solomon, and then it was added to at various times by his successors. 

Hnyb yrma || rsWmW hmkj    ‘wisdom and discipline … words of discernment…’  The two clauses of verse 2 are formally parallel to one another, but the point of this parallelism is probably amplification, not equivalence.  The Hebrew concept of hm;k]j; is basically ‘skill in living;’ the concept behind rs'Wm is that of discipline produced by chastisement (the school of hard knocks).  The idea behind ‘words of discernment’ can hardly be considered to be equivalent to either.  However, a skill in life coupled with discipline can provide the source for words of discernment.

The structure of verse 3 is considerably different.  Instead of strict parallelism, the verse begins with an infinitive construct but it is followed by a string of nouns that constitute different facets of the skill in living: discipline, prudence (or insight), righteousness, justice, and uprightness (or equity). 

Verses 2 and 3 describe the prize to be gained through proverbial wisdom; verse 4 describes the ones who stands most to benefit, μyatP.  The term μyatP has both positive and negative connotations.  On one hand, such a one may just be untaught and inexperienced; on the other, he may be rebellious against God (c.f., 1:22).  Here, the term is parallel with r[n, a youth.  In biblical usage, this term can refer to a young man between the approximate ages of 15 and 25.  Attention to the teachings of the wise can give the inexperienced youth a skill in life that exceed his years. 

Verses 5 and 6 describe the person who has successfully incorporated this skill into his life: He hears and gains in his attainment of learning, and by gaining counsel from his experiences, he increases his mastery in the skills of life.  These verses reflect the message in Yeshua’s parable of the talents: To him who has more will be given; to him who does not have, even what he does have will be taken away.

μtdyjw μymkj yrbD || hxylmW lvm    These five nouns describe those areas where the wise person gains through attention to proverbial wisdom.  They are presented in parallel structure, and the first element in each pair is obvious: ‘a proverb’ (or similitude) and ‘words of sages.’  The second element of each pair is more difficult.  The term hxylm is built from the hiph participle of the root 6yl and has the basic meaning of ‘scorn.’  This form occurs just twice in the Hebrew scriptures, and the translation ‘satire’ or ‘mocking poem’ is merely a guess at its meaning.  In Mishnaic Hebrew the term had both positive (defense, argument) and negative (scorn) uses.  The term μtdyj is a fs noun with a 3mp pronominal suffix.  This term occurs more than 30 times in the Hebrew scriptures and refers to a riddle, perplexing saying, or question.  Assuming that parallelism provides the basis for interpretation, μymkj yrbD (words of sages) is equivalent to lvm (proverbs); that is, proverbs or similitudes (parables) constitute the sayings of the wise ones.  Similarly, hxylm is explained by the less enigmatic term μtdyj (their riddles).

7 The fear of YHWH is the beginning of knowledge; wisdom and discipline fools despise.

8 Hear, my son, the discipline of your father, and do not abandon the instruction of your mother

9 Because they are a wreath of grace for your head and a necklace for your neck.

 hwhy tary    Verse 7 presents a contrast between two character traits: the one who fears YHWH and the fool.  The phrase hwhy tary describes a fundamental reverential awe for the majesty and infinity of YHWH in comparison with us His creatures, even though we bare His image.  This ‘fear of YHWH’ is the first fundamental of knowledge because we must have a realistic understanding of who and what we are relative YHWH, the God who has seen fit to be in covenant relation with his creatures, before we can have an accurate understanding of anything else.  The term μylywa presents a stark contrast.  Literally, it is a mp adjective form meaning ‘foolish (ones).’  These foolish ones despise (regard with contempt) the fruit produced by the fear of YHWH: wisdom and discipline.  When this fruit is missing from a person’s life, so is the fundamental fear of YHWH.  This corresponds to the New Testament teaching: ‘By their fruit you shall know them.’

ynIB] [m'v]        The verb form is an ms imperative and it is usually translated “Hear!’.  However, in classical Hebrew this verb carries the implication of “hear and conduct yourself in accordance with what has been heard.”  This is in accordance with the admonition in the New Covenant Texts “Not hearers of the word but doers of the word will be justified.”

 rsWm  This term is a ms noun meaning ‘discipline, chastening, correction.’  Its use suggests punishment for some misdeed, which in this case is administered by ‘your father.’  The parallel clause contains Úma tr/T – ‘the instruction of your mother’ – which seems to be completely positive.  The juxtaposition of verses 7 and 8 is not accidental.  YHWH is the source of all instruction and correction, but the first representative of YHWH in a child’s life is provided by his two parents.  In the beginning God made mankind, both male and female, in His image, but neither male nor female has the complete image.  The two must be joined together spiritually to produce a complete (though finite and imperfect) image of God, just as they must be joined together physically to produce a child.  One must complement the other first in conception and then in the nurture of a child.  This, perhaps, provides some insight into the intended meaning of Ephesians 6:4, “And fathers do not exasperate your children, but raise them up in the instruction and admonition of the Lord (ablative of source: ‘that comes from the Lord’).”

Verse 9 is introduced by yKi indicating that the following clause contains the reason for the prior injunction.  The subject of the sentence is a 3mp pronoun whose antecedent can only be ‘the discipline of your father’ and ‘the instruction of your mother.’  Interestingly, this states that the child’s crown of splendor is the instruction and guidance of his parents, not his own wisdom and not the conduct that results from that guidance.

I have tentatively labeled the above three verses ‘linguistic glue’ because similar types of content appear between the various connected vignettes that make up this section.  Evidently, the author intended these passages to provide a cohesive element between the blocks of proverbs/parables.  The ‘linguistic glue’ probably consists of proverbs in their own right, but they were assembled into the book as a whole to link the various segments of the compilation together.

 The Proverb/Parable

The following 9 verse constitutes the first parable-like section in the book.  It consists of a simple story with an admonition: Do not give in to the temptation to acquire material wealth by means of wicked practices, specifically murder and robbery. 

10 My son, if sinners try to entice you, do not consent.

11 If they should say to you, “Come with us.  Let us lie in wait for blood.  Let us lie in hiding without cause for an innocent (victim)

12 “Let us swallow them up like the grave (swallows) life, even healthy (victims) like those who descend to the pit.

13 “We will find all precious wealth; we will fill our houses with plunder.

14 “Cast your lot with us; we will have one purse for all of us.”

15 My son, do not go along with them; restrain your foot from their path.

16 For their feet run to evil, and they hasten to spill blood.

17 For the net is spread in vain before the eyes of any bird.

18 But they will lie in wait for blood; they will treasure up (judgement) for their (own) souls.

19 Thus is the path of all who seek gain by violence, (who) take life from its owner.

ynIB]      Formally, the first 9 chapters of this book are addressed to ‘my son’ 11 times (1:10, 2:1, 3:1, 3:21, 4:10, 4:20, 5:1, 6:1, 6:3, 6:20, and 7:1) and to ‘sons’ four times (4:1, 5:7, 7:24, 8:32).  This usage occurs just six additional times (23:15, 23:19, 23:26, 24:13, 24:21, and 27:11) in the remainder of the book.  This suggests that this material was assembled specifically for Solomon’s eldest son who would replace him as king over Israel.  The plural references may be directed to other sons of Solomon, or they may include all the people of Israel as the formal ‘sons’ of the king.  As such, the entire book of Proverbs would be an objective example of how the king implemented the command in Deut 6:7-9 to teach his sons the ways of YHWH.  Unfortunately, scripture teaches us that Solomon’s eldest son turned out to be a self-pleasing fool (1 K 12), and his arrogance resulted in the division between Israel and Judah. 

μyaiF;j' ÚWTp'y“Aμai   This vignette opens with a hypothetical situation in which “sinners” attempt to seduce the young man being addressed.  Formally, the verb is a 3ms piel from h3t3P with a 2ms pronominal suffix.  BDB categorizes the verbal root as a denominative verb having the basic meaning of ‘be simple;’ the piel form is used to express such meanings as “persuade, seduce, deceive.”  The idea is that an external agent or agents induce a person to do something contrary to their own inclinations by means of verbal or physical persuasion. 

abeToAla'        The verb is generally identified as a 2ms qal imperfect from the root h3b3a (consent), but both the spelling and vocalization follow the Aramaic pattern.  As a result, the manuscripts have various spellings, and several manuscripts have aboT;.  The Aramaic root (y3b3a) has the meaning “embrace, consent.”  The other possibility is that the root is a3w3b (come, go), and the vocalization became corrupted over the course of time.  Either possibility might fit the context.  However, the scenario laid out by the author begins with ‘If sinners attempt to persuade (entice) you…;’ the more natural exhortation would be ‘do not consent.’  The content of the enticement begins with ‘Come with us!’  The most natural exhortation in response to this statement would be ‘Do not go,’ which is found in verse 15a.

The next four verses expand the first half of verse 10 to describe the enticement of the ‘sinners.’  This is presented in the form of six statements sandwiched between two simple imperatives:

Come with us!

·        Let us lie in wait for blood

·        Let us lie in hiding without cause for an innocent (victim)

·        We will swallow them up like sheol (swallows) life

·        (We will swallow up) even healthy ones, like those who descend into the pit

·        We will attain to (find) every kind of precious (costly) wealth

·        We will fill our houses with booty

Cast your lot with us: We will have one purse for all of us!

Wrm]ayO μai   This clause duplicates the hypothetical condition of verse 10a, indicating that the following verses contain the content of the persuasive enticement to sin.

WnT;ai hk;l]i      This statement consists of a simple 2ms cohortative (indicated by the hA; following the normal imperfect inflection): ‘Come with us.’  As such it implies a promise of fellowship with the conspirators as well as an invitation to participate in their activities.

μN:ji yqin:l] hn:P]x]nI || μd:l] hb;r“a,n<    The two verb forms are both 1cp qal cohortatives.  The cohortative form is used to express a determination of the will or a strong desire.  The first clause presents the intended activity: ‘Let’s kill someone for their booty.’  The parallel clause amplifies that proposal: ‘Anyone we can take by surprise will do.’  The term yqin:l] consists of an inseparable preposition followed by an adjective being used with substantival force.  This usage exists in English (e.g., ‘the good die young’), but it is not common.  The term μN:ji is a substantive being used as an adverb.  The root meaning is ‘grace, favor,’ but here it has the force of ‘gratuitously, without cause.’  (This particular usage is also found in Pv 1:17, 3:30, 23:29, and 24:28.)

The peculiar thing about this vignette is that random murder for profit is the only crime considered.  In the present day, even hardened career criminals seldom began their activity with random murder of innocent victims.  The fact that we are made in the image of God is imprinted on our subconscious in such a way that intentional murder is naturally repugnant to all normal people in every society.  Even if such an act is a person’s first actual crime, the deed typically comes after a protracted period during which the person broods with hatred or resentment.  Yeshua affirmed in the Sermon on the Mount that hatred for another in the heart is essentially equivalent to the external act of murder.  (C.f. also Lev. 19:17 f.)  This equivalence arises because the existence of internal hatred deadens the natural repugnance of murder making the overt act a mere extension of what already exists within.

The next four clauses replace the cohortative with a qal imperfect.  Since the cohortative expresses a determination of the will, the string of simple imperfect forms expresses the expected result of their intended activity.

r/b ydEr“/yK] μymiymit]W || μyYIj' l/av]Ki μ[el;b]nI     The first anticipated result is success in taking life.  The two parallel clauses employ separate comparative structures to emphasize their expected success.  First, ‘We will be as successful at devouring life as the grave’ – and one-out-of-one persons die, nobody is exempt.  The second clause introduces a comparison that emphasizes their expected effectiveness.  Apart from wars and natural disasters, the grave only takes those who are old, feeble, or sickly.  The term μymiymit] refers to those who are whole, complete, healthy.  Thus, the instigators of this plot expect to take healthy individuals (i.e., those most likely to have valuable plunder) and send them to sheol (the grave) before their time.

ll;v; WnyTeb; aLem'n“ || ax;m]nI rq;y: ˆ/hAlK;   The second anticipated result is successful acquisition of much valuable booty.  The phrase rq;y: ˆ/hAlK; is difficult to render precisely in English.  The essential impact is that they expect to find large quantities of valuable and desirable items.  The parallel clause amplifies this expectation: there will be enough booty to fill up their houses.

ˆ/hAlK;   The term ˆ/h occurs in poetic literature almost exclusively and means ‘wealth, sufficiency.’  The term rq;y:  is an adjective meaning ‘precious, costly, glorious, splendid.’  The source of difficulty for translation is that both the noun and the adjective have essentially the same meaning.  The phrase amounts to a pleonasm for which there is no direct equivalent in English.  Perhaps, the phrase ‘Every kind of glorious wealth’ might give a reasonable approximation to the force of the Hebrew expression.

The final verse expressing the hypothetical scenario ends with an imperative clause and a pledge.  The first clause is a direct appeal to the listener: ‘Cast your lot with us!’  The second is a promise: ‘We will have one purse for all of us.’  The casting of lots was fairly significant in ancient Israel.  By this practice Achan was identified as the transgressor who took some plunder following the defeat of Jericho, and by this practice the land was divided after the conquest.  Underlying this practice was the faith that YHWH controlled how the lots fell.  The ultimate force of this appeal amounts to the following: ‘Join your destiny with ours.’  Accepting the appeal demanded two tenets of faith:

1    Those whose practice consisted of random murder for gain can be trusted;

2    Those who follow this practice can avoid both the avenger of blood and the judgement of God.

The next five verses expand the second half of verse 10 to explain why the proposed activity is a really bad idea.  The structure consists of an appeal, ‘Don’t do it!’ followed by an affirmation that ultimate judgement will fall on all those who follow the proposed manner of life.

μt;b;ytiN“mi Úl“g“r" [n"m] || μT;ai ËleTeAla'        This parallel couplet presents the same instruction in two different ways: Do not go with them || Restrain your feet from their paths.  The next parallel couplet presents the logical basis for this instruction.  The first clause in the second couplet states: Their feet run to (toward) the bad (evil).  The term [r" is somewhat ambiguous.  It is usually translated by the English term ‘evil.’  It always signifies something that is undesirable or unpleasant (i.e., bad), but it frequently does not signify something that is morally or ethically bad.  The parallel clause amplifies the thought to underscore the urgency of the admonitions: They rush to shed blood.

The use of verb forms in these two verses is worth a closer examination.  ËleTeAla' in the first clause of verse 15 is a 2ms qal imperfect preceded by the negative adverb la'.  This construction normally is used for a negative injunction for a single or a specific action.  (An absolute prohibition would normally be expressed by ËleTeAalO.)  The usage here duplicates the expression at the end of verse 10: ‘Do not go.’  The verb form in the parallel clause is a simple qal singular imperative.  Both verbs in verse 16 are 3mp qal imperfect forms, and both have been interpreted as gnomic expressing habitual action.  Evidently, this construction was used to convey the following admonition: Do not engage in this type of activity.

5n:K; l['B'Alk; ynEy[eB] tv,r:h; hr:zOm] μN"jiAyKi   For the net is spread in vain before the eyes of any bird.  This is a single proverb with no parallelism.  Since it begins with the same word as the previous verse, the entire proverb apparently is intended to amplify or clarify why joining with wicked people is not wise.  The picture behind the proverb is the practice of a fowler, one who hunts birds.  In those days, a fowler might use nets or snares to hunt his quarry.  In order to avoid scaring the intended quarry away, the hunter would never set his trap while they were present or watching.  To interpret the proverb, one must assess what is the snare or trap and what is the intended quarry.  In verses 11 through 14, the evil men are the hunters, the weapon to be used is unstated, and the innocent wayfarer is the game to be trapped.  This is their intention, but verses 17 and 18 indicate that their intended purpose will be reversed against them.  Thus, the hunters will become the hunted, and their own trap will ensnare them. 

.jQ;yI wyl;[;B] vp,n<Ata, [x'B; ['xeBoAlK; t/jr“a; ˆKe μt;vop]n"l] WnP]x]yI Wbroa‘y< μm;d:l] μhew“

But they lie in wait for blood – they are treasuring up (blood) for their (own) souls.

Thus are the ways of any thief: he has been cut off, he takes life from its owner.

μhew“     Verse 18 begins with a vav conjunction and the pronominal subject.  The conjunction should be interpreted as an adversative (but), because it introduces a sharp contrast with the highwaymen’s intended outcome.  The normal word order in a classical Hebrew sentence is verb-subject-predicate.  Positioning both the subject and the predicate before the verb is strongly emphatic.  In addition, use of a pronominal subject is unnecessary, because the number and gender are part of the verb form.  The contrast is this:  They intend to lie in wait for an easy victim, but they are really saving up an account of blood guiltiness against themselves.

t/jr“a; ˆKe      Verse 19 contains and two finite verbs ([x'B; and jQ;yI) that are both 3ms perfect forms.  The term t/jr“a; is a feminine plural construct form and so must be either the subject of a finite verb or the predicate of a verbless clause.  The two renderings are:

Thus are the paths of anyone who seeks gain by violence: he has been cut off.

Thus, the paths of anyone who seeks gain by violence has been cut off.

The major problem with the second possible rendering is that t/jr“a; is feminine plural, not masculine singular like the finite verb [x'B; 

[x'B; ['xeBoAlK;     The remainder of this clause and the second half of the verse are difficult to render into English.  The term ['xeBo is a qal active participle from [xB meaning ‘cut off, gain by violence.’  The participle may be rendered by ‘thief’ with the understanding that this thief gains his plunder by random murder, i.e., cutting off his victims.  The term [x'B; is a 3ms qal perfect from the same root.  Since the construct chain cannot grammatically be taken as the subject of [x'B;, it must be the predicate of a verbless clause, and the finite verb must stand on its own as a separate one-word clause.  The juxtaposition of the participle and finite verb from the same root constitutes a play on the root meaning of the words:  The one who cuts others off (the thief) has himself been cut off.

jQ;yI wyl;[;B] vp,n<Ata,      This clause is strictly in parallel with the one word clause formed by the finite verb [x'B;.  It provides the explanatory basis for why the thief has been cut off.  The only interpretative difficulty is that the verb form is a 3ms imperfect in parallel with a 3mp perfect.  This difficulty may be resolved by taking the imperfect as expressing gnomic, or habitual, action: ‘he takes the life from its owner. 

Summary

The first 9 chapters of the book of Proverbs contains a sequence of vignettes in the form of parables.  Each parable examines the characteristics of a life governed by wisdom in contrast to that of a fool's life.  This first parable is a admonition not to be tempted by get-rich-quick schemes, particularly those based on violence against the weak and unsuspecting.

Sunday, August 15, 2021

YHWH God planted a garden in Eden מקדם... What does קדם mean?

INTRODUCTION

According to BDB (classical Hebrew lexicon) the root ק.ד.מ is attested in Akkadian, Arabic, Ethiopic, Sabean, Phoenician, old Aramaic, Palestinian Aramaic, Syriac, and Ugaritic.  Unlike biblical Hebrew the temporal significance dominates; the only possibly directional meanings listed in many of the cognate languages is before, in the presence of.  The meaning of east is not attested in any of these cognates except for Palestinian Aramaic (200 BCE to 200 CE), which does attest the directional meanings before and east.  Biblical Hebrew preserves both the common Semitic temporal significance of this root as well as the directional meanings (east, before, in front of, in the presence of), but use of this root to express directional relationships is more frequent than the temporal significance for some forms, at least according to BDB.  There is inadequate evidence to determine how or when the directional/spatial significance became expanded in biblical Hebrew to include east, but this examination will attempt to determine what syntactic clues were used to indicate which meaning was intended by the author/speaker. 

LEXICAL EVIDENCE

The following entries summarize the information from standard lexicons, glossaries, and word lists for the languages to be examined as well as the general Semitic language family.  These meanings represent the considered opinion of Semitic experts on the meaning and usage of qedem as it appears in the Hebrew bible, its representation in the major ancient translations, and in its equivalent forms of cognate Semitic languages.  Though editors of lexicons are surely capable scholars, they are capable of error in individual instances due to lack of data or due to personal bias.  Consequently, such lists can only serve as a starting point of any serious examination.

Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament, Brown, Driver, and Briggs (BDB)

o¤s¤e                          1. Front; 2. East; 3. Ancient time, afore time; beginning

 Hebrew Aramaic English Dictionary, Jastrow (primarily post biblical era)

      o¤s¤e                         olden time; before (targumic use same as biblical Hebrew)

oŠs„e                       1. Before (time and place); 2a. before (dir), 2b. מן ק'since, because

h‹n‰s‹e                        (various forms) first, former previous, ancient times

A Manual of Palestinian Aramaic Texts, Fitzmyer and Harrington (glossary)

       ose                        1. before; 2. east

       hnse                    first

       ,nse                   before

A Compendious Syriac Dictionary, Payne Smith (letters transcribed into Hebrew characters)

        oh‡se                      first, former

        tŠhŠnhˆs‹e              former, pristine

        o‹se                        before (temp), in the presence of; ק' מן – from the presence of

        tŠns‹e               first, early, primeaval

        tŠnŠse                    front, presence

        hŠns‹e                first, fore, early, primitive, ancient 

Lexicon to the Syriac New Testament, Jennings (forms transcribed into Hebrew characters)

         o‹se                       before (temp)

         oŠse                       before, in front of, in the presence of

         tŠns‹e                    first

Ethiopic

         qdem                     before; precede, former time

A Grammar of the Phoenician Language, Harris

         ose                        be in front; aforetime           

An Aramaic Handbook, Rosenthal

         qdm                       Monumental inscriptions: before (local), former condition

         qdm                       Achaemenid times: before, formerly

         qdm                       Palmyrene, Hatran, Nabataean: before, former

         qwdm                    Jewish Palestinian Aramaic: before, from before

                                       ihˆn§s‹e§Kˆn - from of old

          qdm                      Samaritan: before

          osue                      Palestinean Syriac: before

                                        Babylonian Talmud: root not listed

          qdm                       Mandaic: qadmaia first, primeval; qadmia from eternity

A Dictionary of the Ugaritic Language, Lete and San Martin

    qdm                       (I) n. m., "front, front part"

    qdm                       II) prep, "in front of"

    qdmy                     Madj. m. "ancient, ancestral"

A Concise Dictionary of Akkadian, Black, George, and Postgate

          qudmu                   (1) front, before, in presence of (2) primeval

The above lexical evidence is sufficient to indicate that the root ק.ד.מ was used throughout the Semitic language family, and the fundamental root significance is temporal with various fine shades of meaning.  The range of meaning extends from before to former to antiquity to eternity past.  Distinctions within this broad semantic range is determined jointly by differences in word formation, vocalization, and literary context.  In contrast, the spatial significance of the root is attested among the north-west Semitic languages alone.  The restricted geographical distribution of this usage suggests that o¤sœ¤e meaning before, in front of, east, eastward was derived from the common Semitic temporal meaning of before for the root.  However, because the same, or similar word forms in these languages were used to express quite different meanings, particular syntactic combinations and overall context must have been the basis for distinguishing one meaning from the other. 

ANALYSIS

The article in BDB for o¤sœ¤e lists all 61 occurrences of the term in the תנ''כ, and these occurrences are almost evenly split between temporal and spatial meanings.  However, a detailed examination of the text references indicates that this question is not quite so simple as it might first appear.  Major challenges are as follows:

·     The 61 occurrences of o¤sœ¤e are found in 60 different verses, and out of these 60 verses, the most ancient translations differ from one another 22 times on how this word should be understood.  In most of these cases one translation provides a different interpretation from the other two, and occasionally all three differ from one another.  In some cases the LXX text omits a particular verse in the תנ''כ entirely; additionally, since I do not have access to targums for the Writings portion of the תנ''כ, I cannot assess the targumic interpretations for these passages.

·      The general breakdown of the remaining 38 occurrences is as follows: temporal 25 poetic passages; directional – 4 poetic passages and 9 prose passages.  Since poetry commonly includes more archaic forms of a given language, this result is consistent with the idea that the temporal meanings are the more ancient.

·   I started the assessment of each of the above passages on the basis of the semantic categories provided by BDB.  Even when the LXX, targum, and Syriac texts all supported the same interpretation I found some constructions to be inherently ambiguous, some whose accepted interpretation at best was debatable, and some that directly contradicted the overall context of the narrative.  This being the case, identifying syntactic constructions that express a directional versus temporal semantic content is expedient.  For those constructions that are ambiguous, differentiation between temporal and directional meanings can only be found in the overall context of the narrative.

DIRECTIONAL CONSTRUCTIONS

I found a total of 14 verses in which all three ancient translations as well as modern versions contained the directional interpretation.  This suggest that at least some of these passages should contain syntactical constructions that are unambiguously directional. 

·     i¤s‡g›i³d‰k o¤sΤE¦n -- This type of construction is always directional.  It consists of o¤sΤE¦n followed by a  לpreposition with either a place name or geographic feature as object.  The meaning could be in front of, before, or eastward, depending on context.  Examples: Gen 3:24, Gen 12:8 (first occurrence), Num 34:11, Jud 8:11, Ez 11:23, Zech 14:4, Jonah 4:5.

·      o¤sœ¤E©v rË©v -- This construction consists of a place name or geographical feature followed by a form of o¤sœ¤E in a construct relation.  In this case, o¤sœ¤E© becomes descriptive of its governing noun.  Examples: Gen 10:30, Gen 12:8 (second occurrence).

·      v¨n§sœ¥e ,¤r¼®BˆF›o²h -- This construction consists of a place name followed by o¤sœ¤E with a directional he, which always indicates direction or destination.  Examples: Nu 34:11.

·      o¤s½¤E¦n oɨr£t -- This construction consists of the name for a location or people group followed by a form of o¤sœ¤E.  The expression by itself would be ambiguous unless there is a specifically directional expression in the same context.  This one example occurs in Is 9:11 and is usually translated Aram from the east and Philistines to the west, but the words actually mean Aram in front and Philisines behind.

·    o¤s·¤e›h¯b‰C -- This construction by itself is inherently ambiguous.  It could mean eastern peoples or ancient peoples with equal plausibility.  Here the immediate context must indicate whether the author intended a contemporary (directional) or an ancient (temporal) reference.  Examples: Is 14:11, Ez 25:4, Job 1:3.

TEMPORAL CONSTRUCTIONS

I found 25 verses in which all three ancient translations interpreted the Hebrew text in a temporal sense.  As before, this suggests that certain syntactic constructions express a temporal sense unambiguously.

·   o¤sœ¤e›h‡f‰k©n›i†C -- This construction consists of a construct chain with o¤sœ¤e being descriptive of its governing noun, which may have no particularly temporal reference.  Like the similar construction above, this expression is inherently ambiguous.  In this particular case (Is 19:11) the context is referring to advisors to pharaoh, so a reference to kings from the east would have no relevance from a geographical standpoint.  Examples: Is 19:11, Ps 74:12, Ps 78:2

·   zœ¨t¥n uhÉŠkŠg‰p¦n o¤s¼¤e -- This construction consists of o¤s¼¤e used absolutely with zœ¨t¥n establishing the temporal context.  Examples: Prov 8:22, Is 23:7 (second occurrence), Is 45:21, Lam 5:1, Jer 30:20, Ps 55:20

·    o¤sʤe›h¥nhœ¦n -- Structurally this expression is identical to o¤sœ¤e›h‡f‰k©n, except the governing term is a temporal reference -- days.  This construction and others like it are always temporal.  Examples: Is 23:7 (first occurrence), Is 37:26, Is 51:9, Mic 7:20, Ps 44:2, Ps 77:6, Ps 77:12, Job 29:2, Lam 1:7, Lam 2:17

·        o¤s½¤E¦n vɨT©t tIÍk£v -- Here the form of o¤s½¤E¦ is used predicate complement in a verbless clause without any other temporal reference in the verse or even in the context.  Since the temporal sense is the primary root meaning, the clause must be understood from that standpoint.  Examples: Hab 1:12, Mic 5:1, Ps 74:2, Ps 119:152, Ps143:5,

·     :.¤rœ¨t›h¥n§s©E¦n Jt«½r¥n h¦T‰fË©X°b oŠkIgœ¥Ón -- Here h¥n§s©E¦n is the governing word of a construct chain, and the temporal significance is established by both oŠkIgœ¥Ón and Jt«½r¥n, implying that all three terms have the same scope.  Examples: Prov 8:23

CONFLICTING INTERPRETATIONS

I included all verses whose translation in the LXX, targum, and Syriac differed from one another.  Sources of difference included different interpretations of the Hebrew text, a translation that appears to have been based on a different Hebrew source, and my lack of access to targums for particular books.  In each instance I sought to use the syntactic constructions listed to determine what meaning the Hebrew author probably intended to convey.

Prose Passages

I found 14 verses of prose text whose interpretations differ. 

Genesis 2:8

:rœŠm²h rˤJ£t o¼¨s¨tœ¨v›,¤t oº¨J o¤GɲH³u o¤s·¤E¦n i¤s¼‡g‰C›i˳D ohÁ¦vO¡t vͲIv±h gÄ©Y°H³u

Hebrew text:  YHWH God planted a garden in Eden o¤s·¤E¦n, and he put the man that he formed there.

This passage is extremely interesting and peculiar.  First, the expression i¤s¼‡g‰C›i˳D is odd.  The term i¤s¼‡g is typically understood as the name of the garden, but the presence of the prefixed preposition suggests that a different meaning may have been intended.  The construction isgc occurs just twice in the bible – here and Ez 28:13.  The text in Ezekiel is ohvkt id isgc, in Eden, the garden of God, and the subsequent text indicates that the prophet is speaking about a spirit being and that the event in question did not occur in earthly Eden.  This construction is not semantically equivalent to that in Gen 2:8.

That being the case, there are two possibilities for the usage here in Genesis: 1) i¤s¼‡g‰C is a name for the location where the garden was placed (preposition used with locative sense), and the garden took its name from that place; 2) i¤s¼‡g is a noun meaning delight, so the combination i¤s¼‡g‰C is an adverbial prepositional phrase meaning with delight. There are three problems with the second option.  First, the expression i¤s¼‡g‰C›i˳D is joined together with a maqqef (›) indicating that i¤s¼‡g‰C should have an adjectival, not adverbial force.  Second, in Hebrew, Aramaic, and Syriac, the noun i¤s¼‡g is used for something that brings delight, not for the attitude of delight itself.  Third, this particular homonym of עדן is connected with an Arabic root spelled with a ‘gayin, not an ‘ayin.  The best explanation I have found for the etymology and significance of this name was provided by Cassuto (A Commentary on the Book of Genesis, Part 1, p 107 f.): a place that is well watered.  This understanding is supported by Gen 13:10 where Lot considered the Jordan rift valley to be well watered like the garden of God.

The LXX text is unambiguously directional – eastward – in its interpretation, and that has been the source for most modern English translations.  Where this particular interpretation came from is impossible to determine, but it is not supported by the targum, the Peshitta, or even the Vulgate.  Both the targum and the Peshitta deviate from their typical translations for o¤s·¤E¦n, whether understood as temporal or directional, making their intended meaning somewhat ambiguous on the basis of word forms alone; however, the sense of to the east is not possible from either.  The sense of before, in front of is possible, but this sense does not fit the context or grammatical structure of the verse.  The sense of from antiquity does fit the context and is supported by the Vulgate rendering.  The interpretation of before the start of creation might fit the context and is supported by Talmudic references Pesachim 54a, Sanhedrin 96b, but to this point I have found no other place in the MT where this sense for o¤s·¤E¦n is unambiguously present.

Genesis 11:2, 13:11

:oœ¨J Uc§J˯H³u r¼Šg±b¦J .¤rˤt‰C vÁŠg§eˆc UËt‰m§n°H³u o¤s·¤E¦n oÉŠg§x²b‰C h¼¦v±h³u

Hebrew text:  As they traveled eastward (from antiquity), they found a valley in the land of Shinar and settled there.

This passage is also interesting because, as in Gen 2:8, o¤s·¤E¦n is stated without any reference to indicate a starting point, which normally should be expected for a directional meaning of kedem.  In Gen 2:8 the LXX translates this form with κατ νατολς (eastward) and here with π νατολν (from the east).  The mountains of Ararat are northwest of Mesopotamia, so if the starting point is this location the direction of travel would have to be eastward.  BDB give a meaning of eastward for o¤s·¤E¦n, which fits the context but not the form.  The term t,hnsec in the targum is normally temporal (in ancient times), but tjbsn in Syriac is always directional.  A meaning of from antiquity could fit both the context and the form in the Hebrew text.

Genesis 25:6

 v¨n§s¼¥e hº©j UBɤsIg‰C ¿Ib‰C eʨj‰m°h k΋g¥n oÄ¥j‰K©J±hœ³u ,«·b¨T©n o¼¨v¨r‰c©t iË©,²b oº¨v¨r‰c©t‰k rɤJ£t ¿oh¦J±d‹khœˆP©v hʯb‰cˆk±u 

:o¤sœ¤e .¤rˤt›k¤t

Hebrew text:  And Abraham gave gifts to his sons by concubines, and while he was still alive he sent them away from Isaac his son eastward to the land of the east.

The תנ''כ text contains two occurrences of o¤sœ¤e: the first has the directional he suffix, and the second is in a prepositional phrase that restates the first.  All three translations render the second term specifically as east.  The Greek text renders the first occurrence as eastward, and the Aramaic texts render it by first.  Considering Abraham’s location at that time, he would have been sending them to the region east of the Dead Sea or beyond.

Genesis 29:1

:o¤sœ¤e›h¯b‰c vŠm§rË©t Q†k¼¯H³u uh·Šk±d©r c«¼e

Hebrew Text: So Jacob picked up his feet and walked towards the land of the sons of the east (or of the ancient people).

The expression o¤sœ¤e›h¯b‰c could be either directional or temporal, and both uses occur in the תנ''כ.  The translations all interpret the expression in this verse as directional east, but Jacob was traveling almost directly northward from where he started, not eastward.  Note that the LXX changed the text from sons of the east to land of the east.  In my opinion, a better translation of the phrase would be toward the land of former relatives.  In this case he was headed toward his relatives living near Haran, not ancient, but relatives from former times.

Numbers 23:7

hɈK›v¨rœ¨t ¿vŠf‰k o¤sº¤e›h¥r§rœ©vœ¥n ¿c¨tIn›Q†kœ¤n eÊŠkŠc h°bÎ¥j±b³h oƨr£Æt›i¦n r·©nt«H³u I¼k¨J§n t˨¬°H³u 

:kœ¥t¨r§G°h v˨n…g«œz v¼Šf‰kU c«ºe…gœ³h

Hebrew Text: Then he took up his oracle and said, "Balak, the king of Moab, brought me from Aram, from the eastern mountains (or from the ancient mountains).  Come, curse Jacob for me; yes, denounce Israel."

All three translations render the expression o¤sº¤e›h¥r§rœ©vœ¥n as eastern mountains, but Aram, the Euphrates, and Mesopotamia in general, are directly north of Moab, not eastward.  The meaning could just as easily be from the ancient mountains, and the expression could be metaphorical, not literal.  The ancient mountains could be a reference to the general local where people first settled after the flood before moving down into the Mesopotamian plain, and that geographical reference then be used in place of northward.  References like ימה (seaward), מדברה (toward the wilderness), מזרחה (toward the sun rise) are used with some frequency in the Torah.

Joshua 7:2

  UÉk±D©r±u U¼k…g r«ºntk ¿o¤vh‡k£t r¤nt«ÊH ³ukº¥t›,hœ‡c‰k o¤sɤE¦n ¿i®uΨt ,hˇC›oˆg rΤJ£t hÄ‹g¨v I½jh¦rhœ¦n oh¦J²b£t ‹gΪJIv±h Ïj‹k§J°H³u c 

:hœŠg¨v›,¤t U¼k±D©r±hœ³u ohº¦J²b£tœ¨v ¿Uk…gœ³Hœ³u .¤r·¨t¨v›,¤t 

Hebrew text:  And Joshua sent men from Jericho to Ai, which is near Beth-Aven east of Beth-El, and he said to them, “Go up and spy out the land.”  So the men went up and spied out Ai.

The construction kº¥t›,hœ‡c‰k o¤sɤE¦n was one of those identified as always directional.  The Greek text renders this phrase by κατὰ Βαιθήλ, down from Beth-El, but both Aramaic versions specifically state east of Beth-El.

Judges 6:3, 6:33, 7:12, 8:10

:uhœŠkŠg UËkŠg±u o¤s¼¤e›h¯b‰cU eÁ‡k¨n…gœ³u iͲh§s¦n vΊkŠg±u k·¥t¨r§G°h gÉ©r²z›o¦t v¼²h¨v±u 

Hebrew Text: Now when Israel was sowing, Midean, that is Amelek and the eastern peoples, would come up against them.

The expression o¤s¼¤e›h¯b‰cU could be temporal or directional.  Midean is eastward from Israel, so a better translation might be Midean and Amelek, even peoples from the east.  Alternatively, the intended meaning could be Midean even Amelek, peoples of antiquity. The LXX contains a temporal reference, and the targum contains a directional interpretation.  Midean dates back to the time of Abraham at least and so qualifies as ancient from the writer's perspective.  In contrast, the Peshitta renders the term as sons of the robe, referring to a distinctive style of garment.  This particular reading could have arisen due to a scribal error, or it could have been a regional term for marauding desert tribes. In my opinion, the expression o¤s¼¤e›h¯b‰cU eÁ‡k¨n…gœ³u iͲh§s¦n is probably intended to be a reference to one, not three groups of raiders, whether qedem is understood as directional or temporal.

1 Kings 5:10

:o°hœ¨r‰m¦n ,Ë©n‰f¨j k«¼F¦nU o¤s·¤e›hœ¯b‰C›kŠF ,¼©n‰f¨jœ¥n v«ºnO§J ,É©n‰f¨j ¿c¤rÎ¥T³u h

Hebrew Text:  So the wisdom of Solomon exceeded that of all the ancient peoples and  that of Egypt (or even all the wisdom of Egypt).

This verse asserts that Solomon's wisdom exceeded that of two groups.  One of these groups is the Egyptians, who clearly excelled in certain pursuits.  The other is identified as o¤s·¤e›hœ¯b‰C›kŠF, which could be interpreted as all eastern peoples (targum and Peshitta) or as all ancient peoples (LXX).  Since there is little indication in the MT that the peoples to the east of Israel were especially noted for their wisdom in any respect, I think that the temporal interpretation is more likely the author's intended meaning.

Jeremiah 49:28

UnUÀe v·²u«v±h rÉ©n¨t v¼«F kº†cŠC›Q†kœ¤n [rÉ‹Mt¤r§s‹fUœc±b] ruÉ‹Mt¤r§s‹fUœc±b ¿vŠF¦v rʤJ£t ru½«m¨j ,uÉ«f‰k§n©n‰kU | rɨs¥e‰k

:o¤sœ¤e›hœ¯b‰C›,¤t U¼s§s¨J±u rº¨s¥e›k¤t UÉk…g


Hebrew Text:  Concerning Kedar and to the kingdoms of Hazor which Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, struck. Thus says YHWH: "Arise, go up to Kedar and despoil the people of the east."


The verse appears to equate Qedar with o¤sœ¤e›hœ¯b‰C, which could mean sons of the east or sons of antiquity.  The LXX interprets Qedem as a place name, and both the targum and the Peshitta interpret the term as east.  The usage is ambiguous: however, because Hazor is west of Babylon, I suspect that the reference is intended to be temporal.

Nehemiah 12:46

ohœ¦vOtœ‡k ,I¼s«v±u vËŠK¦v§T›rhœ¦J±u ohº¦r§r«œJ§nœ©v [¿h¥Jt¨r] ¿¥Jt¨r o¤s·¤E¦n ;¼¨x¨t±u shÁ°u¨S hË¥nhˆc›hœˆF:

Hebrew text:  For in the days of David and Asaph of old, there were leaders of the singers and songs of praise and thanksgiving to God.

The construction o¤s·¤E¦n /// hË¥nhˆc demands a temporal meaning.  The targum text is not available, and the Syriac text changes the meaning of the text.  The Hebrew text talks about the ancient practices of the leader of the Levitical singers.  The Syriac text refers to ancient songs to God.  In contrast, the LXX text follows the sense of the Hebrew closely.

Poetic Passages

I found 15 passages in which the three translations differed materially from one another.  In many cases the nature of the deviation was the same as those in the prose passages.

Deuteronemy 33:15

:oœŠkIg ,IËg‰c°D s®d¼¤N¦nU o¤s·¤e›h¥r£rœ©v Jt«¼r¥nU

Hebrew Text: From the head of the ancient mountains and from the choicest things of the eternal hills.

This verse is taken from Moses’ blessing for Joseph.  As previously mentioned, an expression like o¤s·¤e›h¥r£rœ©v is by itself ambiguous; however, the term oœŠkIg in the parallel part of the verse should remove all ambiguity.  The LXX text has ρων ρχς, which is a straight-forward temporal translation for o¤s·¤e›h¥r£rœ©v.  The targum text has thrhfc thruy, which is a bit more obscure but means the first mountains.  The Syriac text has the eastern mountains.

2 Kings 19:25, Isaiah 37:26

oh¼ˆM°b ohˈK³D ,IÁJ§v‹k h½¦v§,U ¨vh½¦,th‡c£v vɨT‹g ¨vh·¦T§r‹mhœ°u o¤s¼¤e h¥nh˦n‰k h¦,hº¦GŠg Vɨ,«t ¿eIj¨rœ¥n‰k T‰gÊ©n¨J›tœO£v

:,IœrŒm‰C oh˦rŠg

Hebrew Text: Have you not heard from afar? I did it from the days of antiquity and planned it.  Now I have brought it about, and you will smash fortified cities into heaps of rubble.

The passage from 2 Kings duplicates Is 37:26.  It is clearly referring to great antiquity and possibly to the earliest days of Israel as a people.  The LXX omits any temporal reference equivalent to o¤s¼¤e h¥nh˦n‰k, though the sense of the passage is similar.  The targum reduces the first two clauses into a single temporal reference, inserts a reference to the destruction of Pharaoh, king of Egypt, and then repeats the temporal reference as a revelation from antiquity ose hnuhn hnse thzj tsu.  The Syriac text is an almost word for word rendering of the Hebrew text.

Isaiah 2:6

:UehœˆP§G³h oh¼¦r‰f²b hË¥s‰k³h‰cU oh·¦T§Jˆk‰P‹F oh¼°b±b«œg±u o¤sº¤E¦n ¿Ut‰kœ¨n hʈF c«ºe…gœ³h ,hɇC ¿W§N‹g v¨T§J½©y²b hɈF

Hebrew Text:  For you have abandoned your people, the house of Jacob, because they are filled from antiquity, soothsayers like the Philistines, and they join in league with strangers.

The Hebrew passage is difficult, and that difficulty is mirrored by the translations.  The Hebrew text seems incomplete, because the verb ¿Ut‰kœ¨n requires a compliment to indicate with what the people were filled.  The LXX supplies like the (people) from antiquity, and the Targum and Syriac follow this approach.  If the text is defective, no variant has been preserved.  Regardless, the translation filled from the east is no help.  As a guess, for they have been filled from antiquity (with wickedness) might be appropriate.

Isaiah 46:10

:vœ¤Gƒg¤t h¼ˆm‰p¤j›kŠf±u oUºe¨, hɦ,Šm…g ¿r¥n«t U·G…gœ³b›tO rɤJ£t o¤s¼¤E¦nU ,hº¦r£jœ©t ¿,h¦Jt¥rœ¥n shʰD©n

Hebrew text:  Declaring the end from the beginning and from antiquity what has not been done.  Saying my counsel will stand, and I will do all my desire.

The first three words ,hº¦r£jœ©t ¿,h¦Jt¥rœ¥n shʰD©n (Declaring the end from the beginning) implies that the entire verse requires a temporal interpretation.  The LXX renders o¤s¼¤E¦n by πρὶν αὐτὰ γενέσθαι (before it came into being), which occurs only here.  Both the targum and the Syriac text have the more common rendering for from ancient times. 

Jeremiah 46:26

o¤s¼¤e›h¥nhœˆF iË«F§J¦T iÁ‡f›h¥r£jœ©t±u uh·¨sŠc…g›s³h‰cU k¼†cŠC›Q†kœ¤n rË‹Mt¤r§s‹fUœc±b sÁ³h‰cU oº¨J‰p³b hÉ¥J§e‹c§n ¿s³h‰C oh½¦T©,±bU 

:vœ²u«v±h›oªt±b

Hebrew Text:  I have given them (Egypt and her gods) into the hands of those who seek their life, even Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon and his servants, but afterwards she will be inhabited as in former days, says YHWH.

The LXX omits this verse.  The scope of the MT verse is judgement on Egypt and all of her gods along with a promise of subsequent restoration to be like former days.  The Syriac changes the scope of this promise: you will dwell as days of the first man.  The context requires o¤s¼¤e h¥nh˦n h¦,hº¦GŠg to refer to the ancient times of Egypt.

Jeremiah 49:28, Ezekiel 25:4, 25:10

UnUÀe v·²u«v±h rÉ©n¨t v¼«F kº†cŠC›Q†kœ¤n [rÉ‹Mt¤r§s‹fUœc±b] ruÉ‹Mt¤r§s‹fUœc±b ¿vŠF¦v rʤJ£t ru½«m¨j ,uÉ«f‰k§n©n‰kU | rɨs¥e‰k

עo¤sœ¤e›hœ¯b‰C›,¤t U¼s§s¨J±u rº¨s¥e›k¤t UÉk

Hebrew Text:  To Kedar and to the kingdoms of Hazor which Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, struck. Thus says YHWH: "Arise, go up to Kedar and despoil the people of the east."

This verse is predicting the Babylonian destruction of Hazor.  The significance of o¤sœ¤e›hœ¯b‰C is ambiguous and depends on the geographic location of Hazor relative to Babylon.  Since Hazor is west of Babylon, the intended meaning was probably the ancient people.  However, the LXX interprets Keder as a place name, and both Aramaic versions have the eastern people.

Psalm 68:34

:z«œg kIÉe IkIe‰ÃC iË¥T°h›i¥v o¤s·¤e›h¥n§J hÉ¥n§JˆC c‡f«œrŠÓk

Hebrew Text:  To him who rides the most ancient heavens; see he gives his voice, a mighty voice.

The passage describes God as the one who rides through the heavens.  The Hebrew text is interesting because the phrase o¤s·¤e›h¥n§J hÉ¥n§JˆC repeats the construct form for heaven, violating the standard syntactical arrangement of a construct chain.  The result is poetic and emphatic.  The LXX and the Syriac texts interpret the words to mean that God comes riding from the east; the targum interprets the description temporally.

Psalm 139:5

:vŠfœ†P‹F hÉ‹kŠg ,¤J¼¨T³u h°b·¨T§r‹m o¤sɤe²u rIÉj¨t

Hebrew Text:  You have encompassed me behind and in front, and you have set your hand on me.

The Hebrew text seems to be clearly directional – behind and in front, but the early translations diverge from one another.  The LXX changes the entire force of the verse – Behold, O Lord, you know everything, the ancient and the last; you formed me and placed your hand on me.  The targum and the Syriac use equivalent terms to that of the Hebrew text, but the Syriac verb means you have formed me.

Job 23:8

:Iœk ihˈc¨t›tOœ±u rI½j¨t±Ãu UB·®bh¥t±u QÉO¡v¤t o¤sɤe iÊ¥v

Hebrew Text:  Look, should I go forward, he will not be not there; backward and I do not discern him. Or: Look, I should come before (him), he will not be not there; if I should go behind (him), I will not discern him.

The Hebrew use of o¤sɤe here is peculiar.  It could be rendered by either first or before, but it is parallel to rI½j¨t, which unambiguously means behindbackward.  The Greek interpretation is completely different:  For should I go to the first (time, place, or dignity), I will no longer be; and at the last, what do I know?  (The Greek text is reading hB·®bh¥t±u instead of  UB·®bh¥t±u.)  The targum specifically uses the term for east, and the Syriac has the term for before or first.  It is safe to say that the peculiar usage of the Hebrew text is the reason for the divergence between the translations.

CONCLUSIONS

The lexical data is sufficient to demonstrate that the original root meaning of the root ק.ד.מ was temporal, and this sense is attested in essentially all of the ancient Semitic languages.  The directional sense of the root was restricted to the North-Western Semitic languages, and this usage was almost certainly developed from the temporal sense of before.

This mode of development resulted in the same forms of the word being used to express both temporal and directional concepts.  In order for a language to communicate, terms developed from this root must have syntactic combinations that are not ambiguous.  Several syntactic combinations were identified that were unambiguously directional and several that were unambiguously temporal.  There were also several expressions that were inherently ambiguous by themselves.  The existence of this ambiguity was demonstrated by divergences in interpretations that existed among the three most ancient translations.  Such divergences were found in almost 1/3 of the occurrences of o¤sɤe in the Hebrew bible.  Nevertheless, the most probable intended meaning could almost always be established by careful examination of the near context.

BIBLIOGRAPY


A Concise Dictionary of Akkadian, Jeremy Black, Andrew George, and Nicholas Postgate; Harrassowitz Verlag, 2000

A Dictionary of the Ugaritic Language, Gregorio Del Olmo Lete and Joaquine Sanmartín, translated by Wilfred G. E. Watson, Korninklijke Brill 2003

A Grammar of the Phoenician Language, Zellig Harris, American Oriental Society, 1936

A Grammar of Biblical Aramaic, Franz Rosenthal, Otto Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden, 1968

A Manual of Palestinian Aramaic Texts, Joseph A. Fitzmyer and Daniel Harrington, Biblical Institute Press 1978

A Compendious Syriac Dictionary, J. Payne Smith, Oxford at the Clarendon Press, first ed. 1903, reprinted 1967

An Aramaic Handbook, Franz Rosenthal, Otto Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden, 1967

Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia, O. Eissfeldt, P. Kahle ed., Deusche Bibelgesellschaft, 1967, 1968

Biblia Sacra, Robertus Weber ed., Würenttembergische Bibelanstalt Stuttgart, 1969, reprint 1975

Cassuto, Umberto, A Commentary on the Book of Genesis, Part 1, translated by Isreal Abrahams, the Magnes Press, reprint 1972

Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament, Brown, Driver, and Briggs; Clarendon Press, reprint 1974

Hebrew Aramaic English Dictionary, Marcus Jastrow, P. Shalom Publishers, Inc., 1967

Lexicon to the Syriac New Testament (Peshitta), William Jennings revised by Ulric Gantillon, Oxford at the Clarendon Press, 1926, reprinted 1962

Septuagenta, Alfred Rahlfs ed., Würenttembergische Bibelanstalt Stuttgart, 1935

Syriac Bible, United Bible Societies, 1979

The Bible in Aramaic, Alexander Sperber ed., Koninklijke Brill NV, 2004

Veteris Testamenti Concordantiae, Solomon Mandelkern, Schocken Publishing House Ltd., 1971