Hebrew Discourse Structure in the Book of Ruth

INTRODUCTION

The vav consecutive is a verbal construction composed of a vav conjunction followed by an imperfect or perfect form of a classical Hebrew verb root.  When formed with the imperfect, the verb form is frequently altered in some respect from the normal imperfect spelling and vocalization; when formed with the perfect, spelling and vocalization are generally unchanged, but the stress accent is moved to the last syllable if not already there.  Invariably, the vav consecutive form, perfect or imperfect, must be the first word in its clause.  Such forms occur abundantly in narrative literature of Classical Hebrew but appear much less frequently or not at all in poetic or hymnic literature.

 

One will find all this information along with details of meaning, formation, vocalization, etc., in essentially every Classical Hebrew grammar, but such reference books have no information at all about what purpose this construction served within a text.  It is unique to Classical Hebrew among all of the other ancient Semitic languages, and it dropped out of use in Hebrew documents from the Mishnaic period to the present time.  (It may never have been a dominant characteristic of the spoken language.)  A fundamental aspect of linguistic change is that languages tend to become simpler in forms and structures over time.  (E.g., the English subjunctive construction has almost completely dropped out of use over the past 50 years, and it is now flagged as an error by most word processors.)  Any vav consecutive with the imperfect (perfect) could be replaced immediately with a simple perfect (imperfect) of the same verb root with no change in semantic content.  Consequently, the presence of this form in a text is either structural, stylistic, or both; semantically it is an unnecessary form.  If its significance is structural, then the alternation between a string of vav consecutive clauses and any other verbal construction may signal a structural division within the flow and development of a narrative.

 

ASSUMPTIONS

 

We have no extensive narrative textual manuscripts dating earlier than those of the Qumran library.  Biblical texts from this library conform fairly closely to the forms and textual traditions preserved in the Massoretic Text.  We have no real idea what these texts may have looked like as original autographs or 1000 years earlier than Qumran, as the case may be.  At any rate, we do know that common availability and access to books (scrolls) was a rarity until the invention of the printing press.  Up to that time even those who were literate seldom had personal possession of many books, because their cost was prohibitively high.  As a result most people obtained information by listening to public readings of individual books or passages from books.  (An example of this practice is found in Nehemiah chapter 8.)

 

Modern printed texts of the Hebrew Bible all include book divisions, chapter divisions, paragraph divisions, and verse divisions.  These divisions were added (or retained) by the Massorites along with vowel points and accents to facilitate reading by people who were not specialists in this art.  I possess a kosher scroll of Ruth, and it consists of four columns with just a single closed paragraph break at verse 4:1 – there are no other structural marks in this text.  My printed Massoretic Text has just one closed paragraph break at verse 4:18.  For the most part, I expect that all of the biblical texts were originally written as a sequence of unbroken columns from beginning to end.  They were produced by one or more scribes for individuals who had been specially trained for reading such texts – the general public never had access to text archives.  Therefore, I expect to find within the consonantal Hebrew text clues that indicate how it is to be read and understood.  A general characteristic of Classical Hebrew is that the beginning and end of phrases and clauses are fairly easy to identify, but identifying the beginning and end of sentences, and especially paragraphs, are much more difficult to identify with certainty.  This difficulty is readily apparent by examining the differences in textual divisions (phrases, sentences, paragraphs) present in the multitude of modern translations.  In part this difficulty is due to the difference in linguistic structure of Indo-European languages versus Classical Hebrew.  Indo-European languages permit a far greater variety of subordinating structures than are available in Hebrew, so sentence structure is typically more grammatically complex than corresponding structures in Hebrew.  Translating a text clause by clause as it exists in Hebrew would result in an unacceptable translation for modern readers, so creating a more complex sentence structure in translations is a practical necessity.

 

Spoken language includes a combination of verbal, visual, and linguistic cues to indicate when a speaker wants to transition from one topic to another.  The particular combination of cues available is unique to each language and culture.  In written texts – especially ancient written texts – only grammatical/linguistic cues remain.  Since ancient texts were so labor intensive to produce, one would expect them to be written with the most formal expression of the language available at the time.  Specialists who had been trained to recognize linguistic cues within the written text would then understand how to read it.  Native speakers of the language who had not been so trained might have no clue.  My fundamental assumption is that the original text of narratives used vav consecutive forms, which have no real semantic reason to exist, as one fundamental clue for the structural development within the text.  A string of vav consecutive clauses would indicate the portion of a narrative that formed a unit, like a paragraph; and a break in that string by a different syntactic construction may indicate a transition within the narrative to a new topic.

 

SAMPLE TEXT

 

Below is a portion of chapter 1 from Ruth.  Except for vowel points, I have reformatted it to appear as close as possible to the kosher scroll.  Chapter and verse numbers have been eliminated along with the soph pasuq at the end of each verse.  A person trained in reading such a text would be able to do so with only moderate difficulty; those familiar only with a completely pointed text would likely find the task much more difficult.

 

wäø;tVvIa◊w a…wñh b$Dawøm yâédVcI;b ‹r…wgDl h#∂d…wh◊y MRj∞Rl tyªE;bIm vy%Ia JKRl∏´¥yÅw X®r¡DaD;b b™Do∂r y¶Ih◊yÅw My$IfVpOÚvAh fâOpVv ‹yEmyI;b y#Ih◊yÅw

MRj™Rl ty¶E;bIm My$It∂rVpRa ‹NwøyVlIk◊w NwôølVjAm —wy∞DnDb_y`EnVv M¶Ev◊w y%ImFoÎn w°ø;tVvIa ·MEv◊w JKRl&RmyIlà∫a vy∞IaDh M∞Ev◊w   wy`DnDb y¶EnVv…w

MyIvÎn M#RhDl …wâaVcˆ¥yÅw Dhy`RnDb y¶EnVv…w ay™Ih r¶EaDÚvI;tÅw y¡ImFoÎn vy∞Ia JKRl™RmyIlTa tDm¶D¥yÅw M`Dv_…wyVh`I¥yÅw b™Dawøm_yédVc …wañøbÎ¥yÅw hó∂d…wh◊y

NwóøyVlIk◊w NwâølVjAm M™Rhy´nVv_MÅg …wt…wñmÎ¥yÅw My`InDv rRc¶RoV;k M™Dv …wbVv¶E¥yÅw t…wúr ty™InEÚvAh M¶Ev◊w h$DÚp√rDo ‹tAjAa`Dh M§Ev twYø¥yIbSaáøm

b$Dawøm hâédVcI;b ‹hDoVm`Dv y§I;k b¡Dawøm yâédVÚcIm bDv™D;tÅw Dhy$Rtø;lAk◊w ‹ayIh M∂q§D;tÅw;h`DvyIaEm…w Dhyä®dDl◊y y¶EnVÚvIm h$DÚvIa`Dh ‹rEaDÚvI;tÅw

hÎnVk∞AlE;tÅw h¡D;mIo Dhy™Rtø;lAk y¶E;tVv…w hD;m$Dv_hDt◊yDh r∞RvSa ‹MwøqD;mAh_NIm a#ExE;tÅw MRj`Dl M™RhDl t¶EtDl w$ø;mAo_tRa ‹hÎwh◊y dôåqDp_y`I;k

; [cAo∞Ay] hRcSoÅy h¡D;mIa ty∞EbVl h™DÚvIa hÎnVb$OÚv hÎnVk∞El Dhy$Rtø;lAk y∞E;tVvIl ‹yImFoÎn rRmaôø;tÅw há∂d…wh◊y X®r¶Ra_lRa b…wävDl JK®r$®;dAb

;h¡DvyIa ty∞E;b h™DÚvIa h$Dj…wnVm Π Na∞RxVm…w M$RkDl ‹hÎwh◊y N§E;tˆy yáîdD;mIo◊w My™ItE;mAh_MIo M¢RtyIcSo rªRvSaA;k dRs$Rj ‹MRkD;mIo h§Dwh◊y

hD;m¶Dl y$AtOnVb hÎnVbâOv ‹yImFoÎn rRmaôø;tÅw K`E;mAoVl b…wävÎn JK¶D;tIa_yI;k ;h¡D;l_hÎn√r™Amaø;tÅw hÎny`R;kVbI;tÅw N™Dlwøq hÎna¶RÚcI;tÅw N$RhDl q∞AÚvI;tÅw

hÎnVbôOv y§I;k vy¡IaVl twâøyVhIm yI;t◊näåqÎz y¶I;k Π NVk$El ‹yAtOnVb My`IvÎnSaAl M™RkDl …wñyDh◊w y$AoEm`V;b ‹MyˆnDb y§Il_dwáøo`Ah y¡I;mIo hÎnVk™AlEt

—N∞EhDlSh hÎnY´gDo`E;t ‹NEhDlSh …wl$∂;d◊gˆy r∞RvSa dAo£ My`InDb yI;t√d¶AlÎy M™Ag◊w vy$IaVl ‹hDl◊y‹A;lAh yIty§IyDh M∞A…g hYÎwVqIt y∞Il_v‰y ‹yI;t√r‹AmDa

N$Dlwøq hÎn∞RÚcI;tÅw h`Dwh◊y_dÅy y™Ib h¶DaVxÎy_y`I;k M$R;kIm ‹dOaVm y§Il_rAm_y`I;k y#AtOnV;b l∞Aa vy¡IaVl twâøyTh y™I;tVlIbVl hÎn√r#E;bAcV;t

Dhy¡RhølTa_lRa◊w h™D;mAo_lRa JK$E;tVmIb◊y hDb∞Dv ‹h´…nIh rRma#ø;tÅw;h`D;b h∂qVbñ∂;d t…wër◊w ;h$DtwømSjAl ‹hDÚp√rDo q§AÚvI;tÅw dwóøo hÎny™R;kVbI;tÅw

r§RvSaAb…w K#ElEa y%IkVlE;t r°RvSa_lRa yI;k JKˆyó∂rSjAaEm b…wâvDl JK™Eb◊zDoVl y$Ib_yIo◊…gVpI;t_lAa t…wr rRmaôø;tÅw JK`E;tVmIb◊y yñérSjAa yIb…wäv

Py$IsOy hâOk◊w JyIl h¶Dwh◊y h°RcSoÅy ·hO;k r¡Eb∂;qRa M™Dv◊w t…w$mDa ‹yIt…w‹mD;t r§RvSaA;b y`DhølTa JKˆy™Ahøla´w y$I;mAo JK∞E;mAo Ny$IlDa yˆny‹IlD;t

hÎnVk∞AlE;tÅw Dhy`RlEa r¶E;bådVl läå;dVjR;tÅw ;h¡D;tIa tRk∞RlDl ay™Ih tRx¶R;mAaVtIm_y`I;k a®r›E;tÅw JK`EnyEb…w y¶InyE;b dyäîrVpÅy t‰w$D;mAh y∞I;k

y`ImFoÎn tañøzSh hÎn√r™Amaø;tÅw N$RhyElSo ‹ryIoDh_lD;k MôOhE;tÅw MRj$Rl ty∞E;b ‹hÎn‹DaøbV;k y#Ih◊yÅw MRj¡Dl ty∞E;b hÎn™Daø;b_dAo M$RhyE;tVv

Mä∂qyér◊w yI;tVk$AlDh h∞DaElVm ‹yˆnSa dáOaVm y™Il yöå;dAv r¶AmEh_yI;k a$∂rDm ‹yIl Π Naô®rVq y¡ImFoÎn y™Il hÎnañ®rVqI;t_lAa N$RhyElSa rRmaâø;tÅw

h§D¥yIbSawø;mAh t…w°r◊w y#ImFoÎn bDv∞D;tÅw y`Il oáår¶Eh yäå;dAv◊w y$Ib hÎn∞Do ‹hÎwhy`Aw y$ImFoÎn ‹yIl hÎnaô®rVqIt hD;m∞Dl h¡Dwh◊y yˆn∞AbyIvTh

b¡Dawøm yâédVÚcIm hDb™DÚvAh ;h$D;mIo ‹;hDtD;lAk

STRUCTURED TEXT OF RUTH

 

Below the entire book of Ruth has been formatted as shown above, but I have structured it into paragraphs on the basis of linguistic cues present in the text.  I have kept the soph pasuq marks in the text to indicate where and how frequently my expected paragraph breaks deviate from the Massoretic verse divisions.  To facilitate assessment I have color coded structural elements that make up the text:

• Vav consecutive clauses (blue).  This includes only the primary independent clause; subordinate clauses are assigned a different color.
• Independent verbal clauses without vav consecutive (orange).
• Subordinate clauses (grey).
• Clauses with participle as finite verb (green).
• Verbless clauses (black without bold).
• Direct speech (red). 

wäø;tVvIa◊w a…wñh b$Dawøm yâédVcI;b ‹r…wgDl h#∂d…wh◊y MRj∞Rl tyªE;bIm vy%Ia JKRl∏´¥yÅw X®r¡DaD;b b™Do∂r y¶Ih◊yÅw My$IfVpOÚvAh fâOpVv ‹yEmyI;b y#Ih◊yÅw

MRj™Rl ty¶E;bIm My$It∂rVpRa ‹NwøyVlIk◊w NwôølVjAm —wy∞DnDb_y`EnVv M¶Ev◊w y%ImFoÎn w°ø;tVvIa ·MEv◊w JKRl&RmyIlà∫a vy∞IaDh M∞Ev◊w :wy`DnDb y¶EnVv…w

 M#RhDl …wâaVcˆ¥yÅw :Dhy`RnDb y¶EnVv…w ay™Ih r¶EaDÚvI;tÅw y¡ImFoÎn vy∞Ia JKRl™RmyIlTa tDm¶D¥yÅw :M`Dv_…wyVh`I¥yÅw b™Dawøm_yédVc …wañøbÎ¥yÅw hó∂d…wh◊y

NwâølVjAm M™Rhy´nVv_MÅg …wt…wñmÎ¥yÅw :My`InDv rRc¶RoV;k M™Dv …wbVv¶E¥yÅw t…wúr ty™InEÚvAh M¶Ev◊w h$DÚp√rDo ‹tAjAa`Dh M§Ev twYø¥yIbSaáøm  MyIvÎn

hâédVcI;b ‹hDoVm`Dv y§I;k b¡Dawøm yâédVÚcIm bDv™D;tÅw Dhy$Rtø;lAk◊w ‹ayIh M∂q§D;tÅw :;h`DvyIaEm…w Dhyä®dDl◊y y¶EnVÚvIm h$DÚvIa`Dh ‹rEaDÚvI;tÅw  NwóøyVlIk◊w 

h¡D;mIo Dhy™Rtø;lAk y¶E;tVv…w hD;m$Dv_hDt◊yDh r∞RvSa ‹MwøqD;mAh_NIm a#ExE;tÅw :MRj`Dl M™RhDl t¶EtDl w$ø;mAo_tRa ‹hÎwh◊y dôåqDp_y`I;k  b$Dawøm 

; h¡D;mIa ty∞EbVl h™DÚvIa hÎnVb$OÚv hÎnVk∞El Dhy$Rtø;lAk y∞E;tVvIl ‹yImFoÎn rRmaôø;tÅw :há∂d…wh◊y X®r¶Ra_lRa b…wävDl JK®r$®;dAb  hÎnVk∞AlE;tÅw 

h™DÚvIa h$Dj…wnVm Π Na∞RxVm…w M$RkDl ‹hÎwh◊y N§E;tˆy :yáîdD;mIo◊w My™ItE;mAh_MIo M¢RtyIcSo rªRvSaA;k dRs$Rj ‹MRkD;mIo h§Dwh◊y   [cAo∞Ay] hRcSoÅy

‹yImFoÎn rRmaôø;tÅw   :JK`E;mAoVl b…wävÎn JK¶D;tIa_yI;k ;h¡D;l_hÎn√r™Amaø;tÅw :hÎny`R;kVbI;tÅw N™Dlwøq hÎna¶RÚcI;tÅw N$RhDl q∞AÚvI;tÅw  ;h¡DvyIa ty∞E;b 

yI;t◊näåqÎz y¶I;k Π NVk$El ‹yAtOnVb  hÎnVbôOv  :My`IvÎnSaAl M™RkDl …wñyDh◊w y$AoEm`V;b ‹MyˆnDb y§Il_dwáøo`Ah y¡I;mIo hÎnVk™AlEt;  hD;m¶Dl  y$AtOnVb hÎnVbâOv 

 hÎn√r#E;bAcV;t—N∞EhDlSh  :My`InDb yI;t√d¶AlÎy M™Ag◊w vy$IaVl ‹hDl◊y‹A;lAh yIty§IyDh M∞A…g hYÎwVqIt y∞Il_v‰y ‹yI;t√r‹AmDa   y§I;k vy¡IaVl  twâøyVhIm 

 y™Ib  h¶DaVxÎy_y`I;k M$R;kIm ‹dOaVm y§Il_rAm_y`I;k y#AtOnV;b l∞Aa vy¡IaVl twâøyTh y™I;tVlIbVl  hÎnY´gDo`E;t  ‹NEhDlSh …wl$∂;d◊gˆy r∞RvSa dAo£  

hDb∞Dv ‹h´…nIh rRma#ø;tÅw   :;h`D;b h∂qVbñ∂;d t…wër◊w ;  h$DtwømSjAl ‹hDÚp√rDo q§AÚvI;tÅw dwóøo hÎny™R;kVbI;tÅw  N$Dlwøq hÎn∞RÚcI;tÅw   :h`Dwh◊y_dÅy  

JKˆyó∂rSjAaEm  b…wâvDl JK™Eb◊zDoVl y$Ib_yIo◊…gVpI;t_lAa  t…wr rRmaôø;tÅw :JK`E;tVmIb◊y yñérSjAa yIb…wäv  Dhy¡RhølTa_lRa◊w h™D;mAo_lRa JK$E;tVmIb◊y  

M™Dv◊w t…w$mDa ‹yIt…w‹mD;t r§RvSaA;b :y`DhølTa JKˆy™Ahøla´w y$I;mAo JK∞E;mAo Ny$IlDa yˆny‹IlD;t  r§RvSaAb…w K#ElEa y%IkVlE;t r°RvSa_lRa   yI;k  

;h¡D;tIa tRk∞RlDl ay™Ih tRx¶R;mAaVtIm_y`I;k a®r›E;tÅw :JK`EnyEb…w y¶InyE;b dyäîrVpÅy t‰w$D;mAh y∞I;kPy$IsOy hâOk◊w JyIl h¶Dwh◊y h°RcSoÅy ·hO;k  r¡Eb∂;qRa 

‹ryIoDh_lD;k MôOhE;tÅw MRj$Rl ty∞E;b ‹hÎn‹DaøbV;k y#Ih◊yÅw MRj¡Dl ty∞E;b hÎn™Daø;b_dAo M$RhyE;tVv  hÎnVk∞AlE;tÅw :Dhy`RlEa r¶E;bådVl läå;dVjR;tÅw 

 y™Il yöå;dAv r¶AmEh_yI;k a$∂rDm ‹yIl Π Naô®rVq y¡ImFoÎn y™Il hÎnañ®rVqI;t_lAa N$RhyElSa rRmaâø;tÅw:y`ImFoÎn tañøzSh hÎn√r™Amaø;tÅw N$RhyElSo 

oáår¶Eh  yäå;dAv◊w y$Ib hÎn∞Do ‹hÎwhy`Aw y$ImFoÎn ‹yIl hÎnaô®rVqIt hD;m∞Dl h¡Dwh◊y yˆn∞AbyIvTh  Mä∂qyér◊w yI;tVk$AlDh h∞DaElVm ‹yˆnSa :dáOaVm

b¡Dawøm yâédVÚcIm hDb™DÚvAh ;h$D;mIo ‹;hDtD;lAk  h§D¥yIbSawø;mAh t…w°r◊w y#ImFoÎn bDv∞D;tÅw :y`Il 

 

tAj™AÚpVvI;mIm lˆy$Aj rwâø;bˆ…g vyIa£ ;h#DvyIaVl [oâådwøm] o∂;d¨yVm yImFoÎnVlá…w :MyáîrOoVc ry¶IxVq t™A;lIjVtI;b MRj$Rl ty∞E;b …waD;b£ hD;m#Eh◊w

r¶RvSa r›AjAa My$IlF;bIvAb h∞DÚfƒqAlSaÅw h®dDÚcAh a§D…n_hDkVl`Ea y#ImFoÎn_l`Ra h˝Î¥yIbSawø;mAh t…w°r ·rRmaø;tÅw :zAoáO;b wäømVv…w JKRl¡RmyIlTa

Dh$®rVqIm r®q∞I¥yÅw MyóîrVxO;qAh yäérSjAa h$®dDÚcA;b fâé;qAlV;tÅw ‹awøbD;tÅw JKRl§E;tÅw :y`I;tIb y¶IkVl ;h™Dl rRmañø;tÅw wy¡DnyEoV;b N™Ej_aDxVmRa

:JKRl`RmyIlTa tAj¶AÚpVvI;mIm r™RvSa zAo$ObVl ‹h®dDÚcAh tôåqVlRj

 

w$ørSoÅnVl ‹zAo‚O;b rRmaôø¥yÅw :h`Dwh◊y ñÔKVk®rDb◊y wäøl …wrVmañø¥yÅw M¡RkD;mIo h∞Dwh◊y MyäîrVxwø;qAl rRmañø¥yÅw MRj$Rl ty∞E;bIm aD;b£ zAo#Ob_h´…nIh◊w

ay$Ih hÎ¥yIbSawáøm hô∂rSoÅn r¡Amaø¥yÅw MyäîrVxwø;qAh_lAo b¶D…xˆ…nAh rAo¢A…nAh NAoGÅ¥yÅw :taáøΩzAh hñ∂rSoÅ…nAh y™ImVl MyóîrVxwíø;qAh_lAo b™D…xˆ…nAh

‹dw#ømSoA;t`Aw awâøbD;tÅw MyóîrVxwø;qAh yäérSjAa My$îrDmFo`Db y∞I;tVpAsDa◊w aÎ…n_hDfƒqAlSa rRma#ø;tÅw :b`Dawøm hñédVÚcIm y™ImFoÎn_M`Io hDb¶DÚvAh

‹yIkVlE;t_lAa y#I;tI;b V;tAo∞AmDv aw¬ølSh t…w%r_lRa zAo°O;b ·rRmaø¥yÅw :f`DoVm tˆy™A;bAh ;h¶D;tVbIv h¢Rz hD;t$Ao_dAo◊w ‹r®q‚O;bAh z§DaEm

tVk∞AlDh◊w N…wrOxVqˆy_rRvSa hô®dDÚcA;b JKˆy˝ÅnyEo :y`DtOrSoÅn_MIo NyäîqD;b√dIt hñOk◊w h¡RΩzIm yäîr…wbSoAt añøl M¢Ag◊w r$EjAa hâ®dDcV;b ‹fOqVlIl

`…wäbSaVvˆy r¶RvSaEm ty›ItDv◊w My$IlE;kAh_lRa ‹V;tVkAlDh◊w t#ImDx◊w JK¡Eo◊gÎn y∞I;tVlIbVl MyäîrDo◊…nAh_tRa yIty¢I…wIx awñølSh N$RhyérSjAa

y™IkOnDÆa◊w yˆn$éryI;kAhVl ‹ÔKy‹‰nyEoV;b N§Ej yIta°DxDm ·Ao…w;dAm wy#DlEa rRmaâø;tÅw hDx√r¡Da …wj™A;tVvI;tÅw DhyY‰nDÚp_lAo ‹ lOÚpI;tÅw :MyáîrDo◊…nAh

; yIb◊zAo`A;tÅw JK¡EvyIa twâøm yäérSjAa JK$EtwømSj_tRa ‹tyIcDo_rRvSa lôO;k y#Il d˝Å…gUh d∏´…gUh h$Dl rRmaâø¥yÅw ‹zAo‚O;b NAo§A¥yÅw :h`D¥yîrVkÎn

J JK¡ElFoDÚp h™Dwh◊y M¶E;lAv◊y :MwáøvVlIv lwñømV;t V;tAoäådÎy_aøl r¶RvSa M›Ao_lRa y$IkVl∞E;tÅw K$E;t√dAlwáøm ‹X®r‹Ra◊w JK#E;mIa◊w JKy∞IbDÆa

N°Ej_aDxVmRa rRmaø;tÅw :wy`DpÎnV;k_tAj`A;t twñøsSjAl ta™D;b_rRvSa l$Ea∂rVcˆy y∞EhølTa hÎwh◊y M§IoEm h#DmElVv JK%E;t√rU;kVcAm y°IhVt…w

rRmaø¥yÅw :ÔKy`RtOjVpIv t™AjAaV;k hY‰yVh`Ra aâøl ‹yIkOnDa◊w ÔK¡RtDjVpIv b∞El_lAo t√r™A;bîd y¶Ik◊w yˆn$D;tVmAj`In y∞I;k ‹yˆnOdSa ÔKy§RnyEoV;b

 My$îrVxwíø;qAh d∞A…xIm ‹bRv‹E;tÅw XRmóOjA;b JK™E;tIÚp V;tVl¶AbDf◊w MRj$R;lAh_NIm tVl∞AkDa◊w ‹MølSh y`IvôO…g lRk#OaDh t∞EoVl zAo%Ob h°Dl

MyöîrDmFo`Dh NyªE;b M∞A…g r#OmaEl wy%∂rDo◊n_tRa zAo°O;b ·wAx◊yÅw fóé;qAlVl M∂q™D;tÅw :r`AtO;tÅw o™A;bVcI;tÅw lAkañø;tÅw y$Il∂q ;h∞Dl_fD;bVxˆ¥yÅw

fñé;qAlV;tÅw :;h`Db_…wrSo◊gIt añøl◊w h™DfV;qIl◊w M¶R;tVbÅzSoÅw My¡ItDbV…xAh_NIm h™Dl …w;lñOvD;t_lOv M¢Ag◊w :Dh…wámyIlVkAt añøl◊w fäé;qAlV;t

;h™DtwømSj a®r¶E;tÅw ry$IoDh awâøbD;tÅw ‹aDÚcI;tÅw :MyáîrOoVc h¶DpyEaV;k y™Ih◊yÅw hDf$é;qIl_rRvSa t∞Ea ‹fO;bVjA;tÅw b®r¡DoDh_dAo hä®dDÚcA;b

V; ‹Mwø¥yAh tVfôå;qIl h°OpyEa ;h%DtwømSj ;h°Dl rRmaø;tÅw :;h`DoVbDÚcIm h∂r™Itwøh_rRvSa t¶Ea ;h$Dl_NR;tI;tÅw ‹aExwø;tÅw hDfóé;qIl_rRvSa t∞Ea

yItyªIcDo r°RvSa vyIaDh M§Ev rRma#ø;tÅw w$ø;mIo hDtVcDo_rRvSa t§Ea ;h#DtwømSjAl d∞E…gA;tÅw JK…wúrD;b JKäéryI;kAm y¶Ih◊y ty$IcDo hÎn∞Da◊w

My¡ItE;mAh_tRa◊w My™I¥yAjAh_tRa w$ø;dVsAj b∞AzDo_aøl ‹rRvSa hYÎwhyAl a…wh JK…wõrD;b h#DtD;lAkVl y%ImFoÎn rRma°ø;tÅw :zAoáO;b Mwäø¥yAh wöø;mIo

MyôîrDo◊…nAh_MIo y#AlEa r∞AmDa_yI;k —M∞A…g h¡D¥yIbSawø;mAh t…wêr rRmaäø;tÅw :a…wáh …wn™ElSaø…g`Im vy$IaDh ‹…wn‹Dl bwõør∂q y#ImFoÎn ;h∞Dl rRma¬ø;tÅw

y§I;k y#I;tI;b bwâøf h¡DtD;lA;k t…wêr_lRa y™ImFoÎn rRmañø;tÅw :y`Il_rRvSa ry™Ix∂;qAh_lD;k t¶Ea …w$;lI;k_MIa d∞Ao Ny$IqD;b√dI;t ‹yIl_rRvSa

MyäîrOoVÚcAh_ry`IxVq twñølV;k_dAo f$é;qAlVl ‹zAo‚O;b twõørSoÅnV;b qA;b√dI;tÅw :r`EjAa hñ®dDcV;b K™Db_…wo◊…gVpˆy añøl◊w wy$DtwørSo∞An_MIo ‹yIaVx`Et

:JK`Dl_bAfy`Iy r¶RvSa AjwäønDm JK¢Dl_v®;qAbSa a¬ølSh yI;tI;b ;h¡DtwømSj y∞ImFoÎn ;h™Dl rRmañø;tÅw :;h`DtwømSj_tRa bRv™E;tÅw My¡IÚfIj`Ah ry∞IxVq…w

—V;tVx∞Aj∂r◊w :hDl◊y`D;lAh MyäîrOoVÚcAh N®rñO…g_tRa hö®rOz a…w#h_h´…nIh wy¡DtwørSoÅn_tRa ty™IyDh r¶RvSa …wn$D;tVoådáOm ‹zAo‚Ob añølSh h#D;tAo◊w

lñOkTaRl wäøtø;lA;k d¶Ao vy$IaDl y∞Io√dÎ…wI;t_lAa N®róO…gAh [V;t√dâårÎy][◊w] yI;t√dårÎy◊w JKˆy™AlDo [JKˆy¢AtølVmIc] JKEtølVmIc V;tVmªAc◊w tVk#AsÎw

[V;tVb¡DkDv][◊w] yI;tVbDkDv◊w wy™Dtøl◊…g√rAm ty¶I;lˆg◊w ta¢Db…w M$Dv_bA;kVvˆy r∞RvSa ‹MwøqD;mAh_tRa tAo‹ådÎy◊w w#øbVkDvVb y∞Ihyˆw :twáø;tVvIl◊w

cAo›A;tÅw N®róO…gAh d®r™E;tÅw :h`RcTo`Ra [y™AlEa] () yñîrVmaø;t_rRvSa löO;k Dhy¡RlEa rRmaäø;tÅw :Ny`IcAoA;t r¶RvSa t™Ea JK$Dl dy∞I…gÅy ‹a…wh◊w

l¶AgV;tÅw f$D;lAb aâøbD;tÅw h¡DmérSoDh h∞ExVqI;b b™A;kVvIl a›øbÎ¥yÅw w$ø;bIl b∞Afyˆ¥yÅw ‹V;tVv´¥yÅw zAoôO;b lAka∏ø¥yÅw :;h`DtwømSj hD;t™A…wIx_rRvSa lñOkV;k

t¡Da_yIm rRmaäø¥yÅw :wy`Dtøl◊…g√rAm tRb™RkOv h$DÚvIa h∞E…nIh◊w t¡EpD;lˆ¥yÅw vy™IaDh dñårTj‰¥yÅw hDl◊y$A;lAh y∞IxSjA;b ‹yIh◊yÅw :b`D;kVvI;tÅw wy™Dtøl◊…g√rAm

 y$I;tI;b  Ô‹hÎwhy`Al V;t§Aa h°Dk…wrV;b  rRmaGø¥yÅw :hD;t`Da l™Eaøg y¶I;k $ÔKVt∞DmSa_lAo ‹ÔK‹RpÎnVk §D;tVcårDp…w K$RtDmSa t…wêr ‹yIkOnDa rRma#ø;tÅw

 ‹yI;tI;b h#D;tAo◊w   :ry`IvDo_MIa◊w läå;d_MIa My$îr…wj∞A;bAh ‹yérSjAa tRk#Rl_yI;tVlIbVl NwóøvaîrDh_NIm  NwëørSjAaDh  JKñé;dVsAj V;tVb¢AfyEh

MYÎnVmDa y∞I;k ‹hD;tAo◊w   :V;t`Da lˆy™Aj tRv¶Ea y¢I;k y$I;mAo rAo∞Av_lD;k ‹Ao‹édwøy y§I;k JK¡D;l_hRcTo`Ra yäîrVmaø;t_rRvSa lñO;k  y$Ia√ry∞I;t_lAa 

   a°øl_MIa◊w l$Da◊gˆy ‹bwøf JK¶ElDa◊gˆy_MIa ‹r®q‚O;bAb h§DyDh◊w hDl◊y#A;lAh —yˆny∞Il :yˆ…n`R;mIm bwõør∂q l™Eaø…g v¶Ey M¢Ag◊w yIkóOnDa  l™Eaøg MIa y¶I;k 

r®q$O;bAh_dAo [‹wøyDtwøl◊…g√rAm] wDtøl◊…g√rAm b§A;kVvI;tÅw :r®qáO;bAh_dAo y™IbVkIv h¡Dwh◊y_yAj yIkäOnDa JKy¶I;tVlAa◊g…w  JK¢ElFa`DgVl X¬OÚpVjÅy 

yIbDh rRmaGø¥yÅw   :N®ráO…gAh h™DÚvIaDh hDa¶Db_yI;k o$ådÎ…wˆy_lAa ‹rRma‹ø¥yÅw …wh¡Eoér_tRa vy™Ia ry¶I;kÅy [M®r¢Rf][V;b]. MwørVfI;b M∂q›D;tÅw 

    ‹awøbD;tÅw   :ry`IoDh aäøbÎ¥yÅw Dhy$RlDo tRv∞D¥yÅw ‹MyîrOoVc_vEv dDm§D¥yÅw ;h¡D;b zRjaâø;tÅw h™Db_yˆzFj`Ra◊w JKˆy¢AlDo_rRvSa tAjªAÚpVfI;mAh 

hR;l™EaDh MyñîrOoVÚcAh_vEv rRma›ø;tÅw :vy`IaDh ;h™Dl_hDc`Do r¶RvSa_lD;k t¢Ea ;h$Dl_d‰…g°A;tÅw y¡I;tI;b t∞Aa_yIm  rRmaäø;tÅw ;h$DtwømSj_lRa

lâOÚpˆy JKy™Ea Ny$Io√d`E;t r∞RvSa dAo£ y$I;tIb y∞IbVv ‹rRma‹ø;tÅw :JK`EtwømSj_lRa Mä∂qyér yIawñøbD;t_lAa [y$AlEa]  () r∞AmDa yI;k£ y¡Il. NAt∞Dn 

:Mwáø¥yAh r™Db∂;dAh h¶D;lI;k_MIa_y`I;k vy$IaDh  fOqVvˆy aôøl y∞I;k r¡Db∂;d 

y¡InOmVlAa y∞InølVÚp häOÚp_hDbVv h∂r…wñs rRmaöø¥yÅw zAo$O;b_rR;bî;d r∞RvSa ‹rEbOo l§Eaø…gAh h∏´…nIh◊w ~MDv bRv∞E¥yÅw rAoAÚvAh h∞DlDo zAo°Ob…w

r¶RvSa h$®dDÚcAh ‹tåqVlRj l$Eaø…gAl ‹rRma‹ø¥yÅw :…wb`Ev´¥yÅw hóOp_…wbVv rRmaâø¥yÅw ry™IoDh y¶EnVqˆΩzIm My¢IvÎnSa h¬∂rDcSo jå;qˆ¥yÅw :b`Ev´¥yÅw rAs™D¥yÅw

 d‰g¶Rn h´nVq r#OmaEl ∞ÔK◊n◊zDa hªRl◊gRa yI;t√r%AmDa y∏ˆnSaÅw  :b`Dawøm hñédVÚcIm hDb™DÚvAh y$ImFoÎn hâ∂rVkDm JKRl¡RmyIlTaRl …wny™IjDaVl 

 hä®dDÚcAh Ny§Ea y∞I;k [‹hDo√d`Ea][◊w] oådEa◊w y#I;l h∂dy∞I…gAh  l%Aa◊gˆy a°øl_MIa◊w l$Da◊…g ‹ lAa◊gI;t_MIa ~yI;mAo y∞EnVqˆz d‰g∞Rn◊w  MyIbVvO¥y`Ah

t…wêr tEaEm…w ñÔKVtwønVq_MwøyV;b zAo$O;b rRmaâø¥yÅw :l`Da◊gRa  y¶IkOnDa rRmaäø¥yÅw ÔKyó®rSjAa y™IkOnDa◊w lw$øa◊gIl ‹ÔKVt`Dl…wz y¡ImFoÎn d∞A¥yIm 

lAk…wa aôøl l#Eaø…gAh rRmaâø¥yÅw :wáøtDlSjÅn_lAo  t™E;mAh_MEv MyñîqDhVl [hDtyYˆn∂q] yItyˆn∂q ‹tE;mAh_tRv`Ea h§D¥yIbSawø;mAh 

:láOa◊gIl l™Ak…wa_aøl y¶I;k y$ItD;lUa◊…g_tRa  ôÔ‹hD;tAa KVl_lAa◊…g y¡ItDlSjÅn_tRa ty™IjVvAa_NRÚp y$Il_[lDa◊g][Il]_lwøa◊gIl 

…wh¡EoérVl N∞AtÎn◊w wäølSoÅn vy¢Ia P¶AlDv  r$Db∂;d_lD;k M∞E¥yåqVl ‹h∂r…wmV;tAh_lAo◊w h§D;l…wa◊…gAh_lAo l%Ea∂rVcˆyV;b My∏ˆnDpVl ·taøz◊w 

  M#DoDh_lDk◊w My˝ˆnéq◊ΩzAl zAo°O;b ·rRmaø¥yÅw  :wáølSoÅn PäølVvˆ¥yÅw JK¡Dl_h´nVq zAoäObVl l¢Eaø…gAh rRma¬ø¥yÅw :l`Ea∂rVcˆyV;b hä∂d…woV;tAh tañøz◊w 

:y`ImFoÎn d™A¥yIm NwóølVjAm…w NwäøyVlIkVl  r¶RvSa_lD;k t¢Ea◊w JKRl$RmyIlTa`Rl r∞RvSa_lD;k_tRa yIty‹ˆn∂q y§I;k MwYø¥yAh ‹MR;tAa MyôîdEo 

t¬érD;kˆy_aøl◊w w$øtDlSj∞An_lAo  tE;mAh_MEv MyôîqDhVl h#DÚvIaVl y∞Il yItyªIn∂q  Nw%ølVjAm tRv°Ea ·hÎ¥yIbSaø;mAh t…wêr_tRa M∞Ag◊w

  MyóîdEo My™Inéq◊ΩzAh◊w rAo¢AÚvA;b_rRvSa  MªDoDh_lD;k …w%rVma∏ø¥yÅw :Mwáø¥yAh M™R;tAa MyñîdEo wóømwøqVm rAo∞AÚvIm…w wy™DjRa M¶IoEm t¢E;mAh_MEv

lˆy∞Aj_hEcSoÅw l$Ea∂rVcˆy ty∞E;b_tRa  ‹MhyE;tVv …wônD;b r°RvSa ‹hDaElVk…w — l§Ej∂rV;k K#RtyE;b_lRa h∞DaD;bAh h%DÚvIaDh_t`Ra h∏Îwh◊y ·NE;tˆy  

 N§E;tˆy r°RvSa oårG‰ΩzAh_NIm hó∂d…why`Il  r™DmDt hñ∂dVlÎy_rRvSa X®r$RÚp ty∞EbV;k ‹ÔKVty`Eb y§Ihyˆw :MRj`Dl ty¶EbV;b M™Ev_a∂rVq…w hDt$∂rVpRaV;b  

 Nwäøy∂rEh ;h¢Dl h¶Dwh◊y N°E;tˆ¥yÅw Dhy¡RlEa  aäøbÎ¥yÅw h$DÚvIaVl wâøl_yIhV;tÅw ‹t…wr_tRa zAoôO;b j°å;qˆ¥yÅw :taáøΩzAh hä∂rSoÅ…n`Ah_NIm $ÔKVl ‹hÎwh◊y 

 wäømVv añér∂;qˆy◊w Mwóø¥yAh l™Eaø…g JK¢Dl ty¶I;bVvIh aâøl rRvSa hYÎwh◊y JK…wêrD;b y$ImFoÎn_l`Ra ‹MyIvÎ…nAh hÎn√r§Amaø;tÅw :N`E;b dRl¶E;tÅw 

 ‹ayIh_rRvSa  w;t$ådDl◊y ‹JKRt‹AbEhSa_rRvà≈a JK§EtD;lAk y∞I;k K¡EtDbyEc_tRa l™E;kVlAkVl…w vRpY‰n by∞IvEmVl JKDl hÎy§Dh◊w  :l`Ea∂rVcˆyV;b 

w°øl  hÎna®rVqI;tÅw …:t‰n`RmOaVl wäøl_yIhV;tÅw ;h$∂qyEjVb wh∞EtIvV;tÅw ‹dRl‹‰¥yAh_tRa y§ImFoÎn j°å;qI;tÅw :My`InD;b h™DoVbIÚvIm  K$Dl hDbwâøf

:d`Iw∂d y¶IbSa y™Avˆy_yIbSa a…wñh d$Ebwøo ‹wømVv h`Dnaô®rVqI;tÅw y¡ImFoÎnVl N™E;b_dA;l¨y  r$OmaEl ‹MEv twñønEkVÚvAh 

‹b∂dÎny`I;mAo◊w :bá∂dÎny`I;mAo_tRa dy¶Ilwøh Mä∂r◊w M$∂r_tRa dy∞Ilwøh ‹NwørVxRj◊w :NwíørVxRj_tRa dy¶Ilwøh X®r™RÚp X®r$DÚp twêødVlwø;t ‹hR;l‹Ea◊w

‹dEbOo◊w :d`Ebwøo_tRa dy¶Ilwøh zAoäOb…w zAo$O;b_tRa dy∞Ilwøh ‹NwømVlAc◊w :h`DmVlAc_tRa dy¶Ilwøh NwäøvVjÅn◊w Nw$øvVjÅn_tRa dy∞Ilwøh

:d`Iw∂;d_tRa dy¶Ilwøh y™Avˆy◊w y$Dvˆy_tRa dy∞Ilwøh

 

DISCUSSION

 

As is clearly evident from the color coded text above, the vast majority of the book is made up of dialog, and in every case each successive speech is introduced by a vav consecutive verb form.  The content of the individual speeches constitutes a direct object to the verb that introduces it.  As a result the details of their internal structure have no real bearing on the structure of the narrative itself.  The overall flow of the narrative is produced by a continuous sequence of vav consecutive clauses.  The first vav consecutive clause sets the time frame and aspect for the narrative, and each successive vav consecutive clause links to its predecessor until the sequence is broken by an independent clause without a vav consecutive form.  Such a clause indicates that the previous sequence is concluded and a new topic or aspect of the narrative is about to begin.  On this basis the book of Ruth is structured as follows:

• Verse 1:1 - 1:22a.  This section describes how Naomi ended up in Moab, when and why she determined to return to Judah with Ruth,  and the situation that existed at the time of their return. 

• Verse 1:22b - 2:3.  This short section introduces Boaz as Naomi's close relative and describes how and why Ruth ended up on Boaz' barley field.

• Verse 2:4 - 3:18.  This section constitutes most of the overall narrative.  It describes how Ruth finds unexpected favor from Boaz while gleaning in his field, so Naomi prompts her to seek him as kinsman redeemer for both her and Naomi.

• Verse 4:1 - 4:6.  This section describes the meeting between Boaz, the other kinsman, and the elders of the village.  Boaz offers the other, nearer, kinsman first option to redeem Naomi and Ruth; he refuses, so Boaz redeems.

• Verse 4:7 - 17.  This section describes the ceremony in which the nearer kinsman refuses to redeem Naomi and Ruth, and Boaz does so, taking Ruth as wife.  It concludes with the birth of Ruth's son, who became the grandfather of David.

• Verse 4:18 - 22.  This section contains the genaelogy of Peretz down to David.

In each case the new sections indicated above begin with an independent clause that is not linked to the previous section by means of a vav consecutive form.  Only the section 4:1 - 4:6 coincides with one of the traditional chapter divisions.   If the original scroll was written a a single column without any type of paragraph divisions in the text, these divisions could easily be identified by a reader.  Since these were all part of the consonantal text, they appear to constitute the original textual divisions for the book. 

CONCLUSION

I began with the presumption that some form of structural subordination at the discourse level should exist within the consonantal text apart from the traditional chapter and paragraph forms that are present in modern printed texts.  This presumption was based on the further presumption that the original text consisted of a single column written on one or more panels of a scroll without any structural form for paragraph divisions.  In point of fact, this is almost exactly what appears in my kosher scroll of Ruth.  In such a case one would normally expect some linguistic cues for how to understand the overall flow for the narrative.

The interplay between sequences of vav consecutive clauses and independent clauses without a vav consecutive form provide just such structure.  Because the vav consecutive form is never semantically necessary, its presence was surely consciously and carefully contrived.  The resulting narrative structure on the basis of this analysis is both reasonable and fits the narrative quite well.  This, of course does not prove that this mode of structuring a narrative equates to fundamental discourse architecture for Hebrew at the time the book of Ruth was composed.  However, if this form of narrative structure is found to occur in other books of the bible, the combination of books that exhibit this structure will provide some evidence both for narrative discourse architecture at a particular point of time and possibly some indication on how narrative discourse architecture developed over time.  

OLD TESTAMENT – NEW TESTAMENT

INTRODUCTION

 

This terminology is found on the cover of many Christian bibles, and even when it is not present in print it is in the mind of essentially every person who has been exposed to any Christian preaching.  As generally understood, Old Testament refers to the Hebrew bible as a whole, and New Testament refers to the Gospels and letters that have been preserved from the writings of the apostles of Yeshua.  The implication of this terminology as it has been used for most of the past 2000 years is that the Hebrew scriptures have been superseded by the "New Testament".  This idea is primarily supported by a superficial understanding of Hebrews 8:13:

 

When he said, “A new testament,” he has made the first obsolete.  But whatever is becoming obsolete and growing old is ready to disappear.

 

The misunderstanding arises primarily due to confusion in the difference between the terms testament and covenant and their use in the Hebrew versus the Greek texts (as well as most translations into other languages) of the bible.

 

COVENANT

 

The classical Hebrew term for a covenant is ברית, and the corresponding term in Koine Greek is συνθηκη.  The term ברית occurs 287 times in the Hebrew bible, but συνθηκη occurs just 14 times in the LXX and mostly as a translation for terms other than ברית.  In the vast majority of cases the LXX uses the term διαθηκη as the translation for ברית.  The noun form does not occur in the New Covenant texts, but the verbal form συντιθημι does appear three times (Lk 22:5, Ac 23:20, Jo 9:22).

 

According to BDB the term ברית comes from the verbal root ברה, which has the base meanings of bind, treaty, covenant.  The Hebrew bible includes the following range of uses for the nominal term:

 

1.     ברית between two or more persons

·      treaty, alliance, covenant

·      constitution, ordinance

·      agreement, pledge

·      alliance of friendship

·      alliance of marriage

 

2.     ברית between God and man

·      alliance of friendship

·      covenant

·      keeping stipulations of a covenant

 

According to Liddell-Scott (classical and Koine Greek lexicon), συνθηκη is a nominal form derived from the verbal compound συντιθημι meaning put together, agree, make a covenant.  The listed range of meanings include the following:

 

1.     In early classical Greek a compound

2.     convention, compact

3.     article of a compact or a treaty

4.     Articles of agreement mostly in plural

5.     covenant, treaty

 

The fundamental characteristic of ברית, whether between two or more humans or between God and men, is that it is a binding agreement with stipulations and obligations for all parties involved.  When the agreement is between individuals of equal stature, the obligations are applied mutually.  When the agreement is between individuals of vastly different stature (e.g., a king and his subjects or YHWH and humans) the scope of obligations are generally vastly different.

 

TESTAMENT

 

The word for testament in the New Covenant texts is διαθηκη.  This is a nominal form derived from the verbal compound διατιθημι.  The nominal for occurs 34 times and the verbal form 6 times.  According to standard Greek usage during the first century CE, these terms mean the following:

 

1.     διατιθημι – to assign by will, make a will or testament

2.     διαθηκη – testament, will

 

The only place in the entire New Covenant writings where this standard Greek usage occurs is in Hebrews 9:16, 17:

 

For where a testament exists, there must of necessity be the death of the one who made it.  For a testament is valid only when men are dead, for it is never in force while the one who made it lives.

 

Elsewhere the New Covenant use corresponds to that in the LXX by using the term διαθηκη as a translation for the Hebrew term ברית.  There is a modern Hebrew word for will, testament – צוואה – that is attested in Talmudic literature and later, but there is nothing of the sort in the Hebrew bible.  The reason for translating ברית in the Hebrew bible texts by διαθηκη in the LXX is now a matter of scholarly debate, and one that can never really be resolved.  Nevertheless, this practice continued throughout the New Covenant writings, and it has become the standard parlance in Christian churches.  The question of how to translate this Greek term remains a matter of scholarly debate.  Some maintain that the word should always be translated as testament, but others insist that it should be translated by covenant whenever it refers to one of the covenants in the Hebrew bible.

 

CONSEQUENCES

 

The confusion between the terms covenant and testament is the result of a mistranslation in the LXX, and mistranslations always have consequences.  The most prominent consequence arises directly from Hebrews 9:16, 17.  The most common Christian interpretation is Old Testament = Hebrew Bible, so the Hebrew Bible is obsolete and passing away.  This conclusion is just plain false on many levels. 

·      The Hebrew bible is filled with covenants being established both between men and between God and men.  Consider particularly the covenants between God and Noah, Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Moses…  Several times there were formal inauguration ceremonies, but neither God nor the individuals involved died before the covenant was in force.

·      From Hebrews 7 through 10 the author emphasizes that the “Old Testament” he is referring to is the Sinai Covenant that was established through Moses.  Consequently, the equation Old Testament = Hebrew Bible is the product of superficial reasoning and bad exegesis.  This covenant was initially inaugurated with an animal sacrifice, and then the covenant remained in force until its provisions were violated by the people.  There was at least one covenant renewal ceremony as recorded in Deut 27 ff, but finally YHWH did expel the people from the land because of their faithlessness.  However, the Abrahamic Covenant, which was unconditional on the part of God, guaranteed a future restoration.

·      According to the book of Hebrew, the “New Testament” is the New Covenant described in Jeremiah 31:31-35.  This passage does in fact state that the New Covenant will replace the Old Covenant, which the people had broken.  Contrary to the teaching of many, or most, Christian leaders, this did not render Torah obsolete.  Rather than being based on the Ten Words, which had been inscribed on tablets of stone, YHWH would write his Torah on the hearts and the minds of his people, and they would all know him.  (See 2 Cor 3:2, 3.) Thus, the substance of Torah has not changed, just the means by which it is experienced by God's covenant people.

Olivet Discourse

INTRODUCTION

The Olivet Discourse is so named because it presumably was delivered by Yeshua on the Mt. of Olives in the evening following his last visit to the temple precincts before his death.  The content of the Olivet Discourse is recorded in the three synoptic gospels, Matthew, Mark, and Luke.  The content and order is similar from one gospel to the next, but it is not identical.  This discourse is significant to Christian theology, because it is the longest presentation from Yeshua during his life concerning the events leading up to his second coming to the earth.  The table below contains the three versions of this discourse in parallel columns.  The content in each column has been separated to make sections of similar content more readily apparent.  Note that even though the three versions do not contain all of the same content, the corresponding passages are in the same order in all three versions.  Because the textual variants in this section of the gospels are mostly insignificant, this aspect of the topic will not be addressed.

Matthew 24:1-31	Mark 13:1-27	Luke 21:5-28
24 Jesus came out from the temple and was going away when His disciples came up to point out the temple buildings to him. 2 And He said to them, “Do you not see all these things? Truly I say to you, not one stone here will be left upon another, which will not be torn down.” 3 As He was sitting on the Mount of Olives, the disciples came to Him privately, saying, “Tell us, when will these things happen, and what will be the sign of Your coming, and of the end of the age?” 4 And Jesus answered and said to them, “See to it that no one misleads you. 5 For many will come in My name, saying, ‘I am the Christ,’ and will mislead many. 6 You will be hearing of wars and rumors of wars. See that you are not frightened, for those things must take place, but that is not yet the end. 7 For nation will rise against nation, and kingdom against king-dom, and in various places there will be famines and earthquakes. 8 But all these things are merely the beginning of birth pangs. 9 “Then they will deliver you to tribulation, and will kill you, and you will be hated by all nations because of my name. 10 At that time many will fall away and will betray one another and hate one another. 11 Many false pro-phets will arise and will mislead many. 12 Because lawlessness is increased, most people’s love will grow cold. 13 But the one who endures to the end, he will be saved. 14 This gospel of the kingdom shall be preached in the whole world as a testimony to all the nations, and then the end will come. 15 “Therefore when you see the abomination of desolation which was spoken of through Daniel the prophet, standing in the holy place (let the reader understand), 16 then those who are in Judea must flee to the mountains. 17 Whoever is on the housetop must not go down to get the things out that are in his house. 18 Whoever is in the field must not turn back to get his cloak. 19 But woe to those who are pregnant and to those who are nursing babies in those days! 20 But pray that your flight will not be in the winter, or on a Sabbath. 21 For then there will be a great tribulation, such as has not occurred since the beginning of the world until now, nor ever will. 22 Unless those days had been cut short, no life would have been saved; but for the sake of the elect those days will be cut short.  23 Then if anyone says to you, ‘Behold, here is the Christ,’ or ‘There He is,’ do not believe him. 24 For false Christs and false prophets will arise and will show great signs and wonders, so as to mislead, if possible, even the elect. 25 Behold, I have told you in advance. 26 So if they say to you, ‘Behold, He is in the wilderness,’ do not go out, or, ‘Behold, He is in the inner rooms,’ do not believe them. 27 For just as the lightning comes from the east and flashes even to the west, so will the coming of the Son of Man be. 28 Wherever the corpse is, there the vultures will gather. 29 “But immediately after the tribulation of those days the sun will be darkened, and the moon will not give its light, and the stars will fall from the sky, and the powers of the heavens will be shaken.  30 And then the sign of the Son of Man will appear in the sky, and then all the tribes of the earth will mourn, and they will see the Son of Man coming on the clouds of the sky with power and great glory. 31 And He will send forth His angels with a great trumpet and they will gather together His elect from the four winds, from one end of the sky to the other.	13 As He was going out of the temple, one of His disciples said to Him, “Teacher, behold what wonderful stones and what won-derful buildings!” 2 And Jesus said to him, “Do you see these great buildings? Not one stone will be left upon another which will not be torn down.” 3 As He was sitting on the Mount of Olives opposite the temple, Peter and James and John and Andrew were questioning Him privately, 4 “Tell us, when will these things be, and what will be the sign when all these things are going to be fulfilled?”  5 And Jesus began to say to them, “See to it that no one misleads you. 6 Many will come in My name, saying, ‘I am He!’ and will mislead many.  7 When you hear of wars and rumors of wars, do not be frightened; those things must take place; but that is not yet the end. 8 For nation will rise up against nation, and kingdom against kingdom; there will be earthquakes in various places; there will also be famines. These things are merely the beginning of birth pangs. 9 “But be on your guard; for they will deliver you to the courts, and you will be flogged in the syna-gogues, and you will stand before governors and kings for My sake, as a testimony to them. 10 The gospel must first be preached to all the nations. 11 When they arrest you and hand you over, do not worry before-hand about what you are to say, but say whatever is given you in that hour; for it is not you who speak, but it is the Holy Spirit. 12 Brother will betray brother to death, and a father his child; and children will rise up against parents and have them put to death. 13 You will be hated by all because of My name, but the one who endures to the end, he will be saved. 14 “But when you see the abomi-nation of desolation standing where it should not be (let the reader understand), then those who are in Judea must flee to the moun-tains. 15 The one who is on the housetop must not go down, or go in to get anything out of his house; 16 and the one who is in the field must not turn back to get his coat. 17 But woe to those who are pregnant and to those who are nursing babies in those days! 18 But pray that it may not happen in the winter. 19 For those days will be a time of tribulation such as has not occurred since the beginning of the creation which God created until now, and never will. 20 Unless the Lord had shortened those days, no life would have been saved; but for the sake of the elect, whom He chose, He shortened the days.  21 And then if anyone says to you, ‘Behold, here is the Christ’; or, ‘Behold, He is there’; do not believe him; 22 for false Christs and false prophets will arise, and will show signs and wonders, in order to lead astray, if possible, the elect. 23 But take heed; behold, I have told you everything in advance.  24 “But in those days, after that tribulation, the sun will be darkened and the moon will not give its light, 25 and the stars be falling from heaven, and the powers that are in the heavens will be shaken. 26 Then they will see the Son of Man coming in clouds with great power and glory. 27 And then He will send forth the angels, and will gather together His elect from the four winds, from the farthest end of the earth to the farthest end of heaven.	5 And while some were talking about the temple, that it was adorned with beautiful stones and votive gifts, He said, 6 “As for these things which you are looking at, the days will come in which there will not be left one stone upon another which will not be torn down.” 7 They questioned Him, saying, “Teacher, when therefore will these things happen? And what will be the sign when these things are about to take place?”  8 And He said, “See to it that you are not misled; for many will come in My name, saying, ‘I am He,’ and, ‘The time is near.’ Do not go after them.  9 When you hear of wars and disturbances, do not be terrified; for these things must take place first, but the end does not follow immediately.”  10 Then He continued by saying to them, “Nation will rise against nation and kingdom against king-dom, 11 and there will be great earthquakes, and in various places plagues and famines; and there will be terrors and great signs from heaven. 12 “But before all these things, they will lay their hands on you and will persecute you, delivering you to the synagogues and prisons, bringing you before kings and governors for My name’s sake. 13 It will lead to an opportunity for your testimony. 14 So make up your minds not to prepare beforehand to defend yourselves; 15 for I will give you utterance and wisdom which none of your opponents will be able to resist or refute. 16 But you will be betrayed even by parents and brothers and relatives and friends, and they will put some of you to death, 17 and you will be hated by all because of My name. 18 Yet not a hair of your head will perish. 19 By your endurance you will gain your lives. 20 “But when you see Jerusa-lem surrounded by armies, then recognize that her desolation is near. 21 Then those who are in Judea must flee to the mountains, and those who are in the midst of the city must leave, and those who are in the country must not enter the city; 22 because these are days of vengeance, so that all things which are written will be fulfilled. 23 Woe to those who are pregnant and to those who are nursing babies in those days; for there will be great distress upon the land and wrath to this people; 24 and they will fall by the edge of the sword, and will be led captive into all the nations; and Jerusalem will be trampled under foot by the Gentiles until the times of the Gentiles are fulfilled. 25 “There will be signs in sun and moon and stars, and on the earth dismay among nations, in perplexity at the roaring of the sea and the waves, 26 men fainting from fear and the expectation of the things which are coming upon the world; for the powers of the heavens will be shaken. 27 Then they will see the Son of Man coming in a cloud with power and great glory. 28 But when these things begin to take place, straighten up and lift up your heads, because your redemption is drawing near.”

SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE VERSIONS

There are numerous differences in wording and content between the three versions, but the content of Matthew and Mark are most similar, the text of Matthew is longest, and the content of Luke is shortest.  Nevertheless, the content of the three discourses is close enough that they all undoubtedly represent different memories of the same event.  Note, however, that none of the authors – Matthew, Mark, or Luke – was present at the time the discourse was delivered.  All three of them heard about it second hand, likely from different sources.  Also, each gospel was written from a different point of view, and so the text may have been adjusted to fit the author’s purpose.  Major differences between the three versions are as follows:

·       Situational Context.  Both Matthew and Mark specifically state that Yeshua and his disciples were leaving the temple at the time when Yeshua told them that every stone of the temple complex would be thrown down.  In Luke, the immediately preceding paragraph describes Yeshua’s response to the poor widow’s contribution of two mites to the temple treasury.  The next verse starts the discourse about what must take place prior to his return.  Matthew and Mark both indicate that they left the temple complex and walked over to the Mount of Olives.  Luke does not indicate where they were when Yeshua delivered this discourse.

·       Audience.  In Matthew the text states that his disciples came to him privately and asked him what would be the sign of his coming and the end of the age.  In Mark the disciples were specifically identified – Peter, James, and John.  In Luke those questioning Yeshua are not identified by anything other than plural verb forms.

·       False Messiahs.  All three accounts include this warning. 

·    Prelude.  The first item of woes mentioned is wars, rumors of wars, earth-quakes, famine, and plagues. 

·       Persecution.  All three gospels have a passage on persecution. 

·      Destruction of Jerusalem.  All three gospels have a passage describing the destruction of Jerusalem and tribulation. 

·       False Prophets and False Messiahs.  This passage is not present in Luke, but the text in Matthew and Mark are similar. 

·    The Return of the Son of Man.  All three gospels describe the return of the Son of Man as an unmistakable event that will be seen by all.

SYNOPTIC PROBLEM

This term refers to a scholarly debate concerning the authorship, dating, and sources for these three gospels.  In brief, the debate arises because of the following factors:

·      All three of these gospels have a similar arrangement from beginning to end.

·      All three gospels have sections with similar style and similar vocabulary.

·    Matthew and Mark exhibit more sections with stylistic and wording similarities than are present in Luke.

·  All three gospels have a considerable number of divergences between one another in internal organization and wording.

Over the years scholars have advanced many different theories to account for both the similarities and the divergences between these three gospels, but none of them has achieved general acceptance.  Probably the most common documentary hypothesis is that all three gospels used one common source document called Q, which may have been written in either Aramaic or Greek.  If the hypothetical “Q” document was originally an Aramaic source, then some of the divergences can be attributed to “translation Greek” as well as to the different purposes of the separate gospels.  Some of the factors that must be kept in mind are as follows:

·    The common language in Judea and Galilee during the first century was Jewish Palestinian Aramaic and Mishnaic Hebrew.  Koine Greek would have been the language of commerce in this region but the common language in much of Anatolia and further west.  Latin was the language of their Roman overlords, but most of the Roman hierarchy also spoke Koine Greek.  (This was a matter of status among the Romans.  Note that Josephus wrote his works in Greek, not Latin, and he indicated that he had to learn Greek.)

·      Many scholars have asserted that most or all four of the gospels were originally written in Aramaic (or Syriac) and subsequently translated into Koine Greek.  This hypothesis has two major flaws.  First, not a single Aramaic fragment of New Covenant text has been preserved from the first or second century CE.  Additionally, the Syriac Peshitta dates from around the third century CE, and the earliest New Covenant fragments (Koine Greek and Latin) date from the early second century.  (Syriac is an Aramaic dialect, but it is not the same as Jewish Palestinian Aramaic or Biblical Aramaic.)  Second, information was primarily communicated orally rather than in book form.  The majority of early gentile Christians were not literate, and few of the people who were literate could afford to purchase books (scrolls at that time).

·      The traditional ascription of authorship for the gospels means at very lest that the text was written down under the authority of the individual identified.  The first four verses of the gospel of Luke assert that the author investigated facts of the matter from testimonies of eyewitnesses and ‘servants of the word’ to establish the truth, but nowhere does he identify himself as Luke.  In contrast, Paul, James (Yacob), and Peter (Cepha) identify themselves at the beginning of each book attributed to them.

The authors – or the scribes that wrote the words down for the first time – assuredly used sources, oral and/or written.  The significant point is not the content of sources that have not been preserved but how that content was assembled into the individual texts that have been preserved.

SYNTHESIS OF ACCOUNTS

The account of the Olivet Discourse begins with Yeshua’s comment about the total destruction of the temple complex as he and his followers were leaving Jerusalem.  This occurred two or three days before Passover, and evidently it was the last time that Yeshua went to the temple before his death.  They crossed over the Kidron Valley to the Mount of Olives, a location where they had often camped during their trips to Jerusalem.  At some point that evening, Peter, James, and John came privately and asked him to clarify two things: when would the temple precinct be destroyed, and what would be the sign of his coming and the end of the age.  Apparently, these three disciples had come to the realization that Yeshua’s ascendancy would not be immediate; but when it came about, it would end the world power structure as they had known it in the present age.  Yeshua’s response consists of seven parts, all future from their perspective; but some clearly apply to their immediate future, some specifically apply to the distant future, and some may apply to both.

1.   False Messiahs.  Yeshua asserted in the coming days many would arise claiming his name for authority.   Because of the ambiguity in the way Koine Greek expresses direct versus reported speech, the text could be understood in one of two ways: 1) Such individuals would claim faith in Yeshua and use that as authority to teach false doctrine;  2) Such individuals would claim to be the risen messiah.   Over the past 2000 years, a number of Jews have been acclaimed to be the messiah, but none of them ever fit the prophetic profile for messiah.  Over the past 200 years a number of sectarian ‘Christian’ leaders have arisen and propagated what has generally been considered false doctrine about Yeshua, and in the past 50 years several individuals have claimed to be the risen Christ.  As predicted by Yeshua, many have been misled by such individuals – some to their death (e.g., Jonestown).

2.   Wars, famine, earthquakes, terrors, plagues, and celestial signs.  Social disruption will be caused by a combination of war and natural disasters of various types.  Yeshua asserted that all this must take place, but it would be merely a prelude, not the end itself.  There is no time that has been free of such events, but over the past 100 or so years, the frequency, scope, and severity of them has increased dramatically.  Speculation about the tribulation and the return of Yeshua really exploded following the Six-Day war in 1967 when Israel regained control of Jerusalem.

3.    Persecution.  All three gospels include a passage on persecution, but their focus is different.  Luke adds the assertion that the persecution would take place before all the wars and the natural catastrophes previously mentioned.  This description appears to relate most closely to the persecution of the Jewish believers by the Jewish authorities.  Matthew and Mark seem to indicate that betrayal and generalized persecution among the nations would occur after the start of the above catastrophes.  Both Matthew and Mark assert that the gospel must be preached to all nations before the end would come.  Historically, official persecution of believing Jews by Jewish authorities began shortly after the death of Yeshua and generally persisted until the fall of Jerusalem.  After that event the remaining Jewish leaders renounced the Jewish believers as followers of a different religion.  Then the official Roman persecution of Christians began and persisted until the ascendancy of Constatine.  After Constantine made Christianity the official religion of the Roman Empire, the Christian hierarchy progressively became persecutors of any who did not follow their interpretation of the gospels.  In more recent times, Christians and Messianic Jews have again become the objects of opposition and persecution for their faith, sometimes with animosity toward one another.

4.   Destruction of Jerusalem and Tribulation. The passages in Matthew and Mark are verbally quite similar, but that in Luke is distinctively different.

·       Luke.  The passage begins with “When you see Jerusalem surrounded by armies …” as the sign that judgment and destruction are about to fall.  This prediction fits the destruction of Jerusalem under Titus in 70 CE.  The prophesy goes on to predict that Jerusalem would continue to be trampled underfoot until the time of the gentiles was fulfilled.  Many Christian interpreters assert that this (the end of the time of the gentiles) took place when Israel regained control of the Old City during the Six Day War in 1967.

·       Matthew-Mark.  These two gospels make the appearance of the Abomination of Desolation in the holy place to be the ultimate sign.  This occurred for the first time during the time of the Maccabees when Antiochus Epiphanes defiled the temple, but this passage is presented as a future event from the perspective of the disciples.  The Romans did destroy the temple, and subsequently the Romans, Christians, and finally the Muslims built places of worship on the site of the temple.  The final structure – the Dome of the Rock – remains there to this day along with a subterranean mosque below the location where the Ark of the Covenant had been situated.  Even though no third temple is now present in Jerusalem, these mosques are a plausible fulfillment of Yeshua’s words – they are an abomination on the site of YHWH’s temple.  Additionally, Matthew and Mark both predict a Great Tribulation whose scope would exceed anything else ever experienced from the time of creation forward.  In fact, this tribulation would have the capability of destroying all life, but God would cut it short for the sake of the elect.  After development of the atomic and hydrogen bombs, mankind now has the capacity to annihilate all life on earth, something that had never previously existed.

5.     False Messiahs and False Prophets.  This passage is not present in Luke, but both Matthew and Mark repeat the prediction concerning the coming of many false messiahs and false prophets.  From the ancient Semitic point of view, repetition is one of the major methods for expressing emphasis.  Yeshua is here asserting that this is important.  Many false teachers and imposters will arise and propagate corrupted or completely false versions of his message.  This situation is now present and has been present for a considerable amount of time.

6.     Sign of Messiah.  This passage is present only in Matthew and it serves as a key for identifying false messiahs.  It consists of two proverbs.  The first is based on lightning.  Any time that lightning occurs, it flashes across the sky and everyone on the ground – and in space for that matter – will see it.  The second is based on the activity of vultures.  Whenever something is dead or dying, vultures circle overhead.  Anyone on the ground will see the vultures and know what is occurring.  Just so, a secret return of Meshiach Yeshua just will not happen.

7.  Coming of Messiah. Matthew and Mark indicate that his return will occur after the Great Tribulation, and all three gospels indicate that it will be preceded by signs in heaven – the sun, moon, and stars.  The manner of his return will be with the “clouds of heaven.”  This imagery is taken from Daniel 7:13 where one like a son of man comes up to the Ancient of Days to receive dominion, glory, and rule over all nations.  This return will not be secret or hidden – everybody will see it.  According to the text in Luke, these signs indicate that the salvation of the elect is drawing near.  The text in Matthew and Mark states that Yeshua will send his spirit messengers (now called angels) out to collect the elect from throughout the earth.  If this reference corresponds to the "rapture of the Church," then it occurs at the end of the Great Tribulation and not before it starts.