I have said, 'You are gods' Psalm 82:6a

Is it not written in your law, ‘I said you are gods?’

INTRODUCTION

In John 10 Yeshua was confronted by a mob intent on stoning him for claiming equality with God.  His personal  defense  included  two parts:  1) He cited Psalm 82:6a  –  I have said you are God  (µt,a' μyhIlOa‘ yTIr“m'a;AynIa).  2) He exhorted them to use his public works as the validation for his claims.  This passage in Psalm 82 is an interpretive puzzle both in its original context and in Yeshua's citation.  In the psalm who is speaking, and what do those words signify?  In the gospel of John how could this citation serve as a personal defense?  Here is my two cents.

TEXTUAL ANALYSIS

John 10:30­­­­—39¹

Εγω και ο πατηρ εν εσμεν.  εβατασαv oυν παλιν λιθους οι ιοuδαιοι, ινα λιθασωσιν αυτον.  απεκριθη αυτοις ο ιησους, πολλα καλα εργα εδειξα υμιν εκ του πατρος μου, δια ποιον αυτων εργον λιθαζετε με;  απεκριθησαν αυτω οι ιουδαιοι λεγοντες, περι καλου εργου ου λιθαζομεν σε,  άλλα περι βλασφημιας, και οτι  συ ανθρωπος ων, ποιεις σεαυτον θεον.  απεκριθη αυτοις ο ιησους, ουκ εστι γεγραμμενον εν τω νομω υμων, εγω ειπα, θεοι εστε;  ει εκεινους ειπε θεους, προς ους ο λογος του θεου εγενετο, και ου δυναται  λυθηναι η γραφη. ον ο πατηρ ηγιασε και απεστειλεν εις τον κοσμον, υμεις λεγετε, οτι  βλασφημεις, οτι ειπον, υιος του θεου ειμι;  ει ου πoiω τα εργα του πατρος μου, μη πιστευετε μοι:  ει δε ποιω, καν εμοι μη πιστευητε, τοις εργοις πιστευσατε: ινα γνωτε και  πιστευηετε, οτι  εν  εμοι o πατηρ, καγω εν αυτω.  εζητουν ουν παλιν αυτοv πιασαι: και εξηθεν της  χειος αυτων.

“… I and the Father are one.”  Then the Jews again took up stones to cast at him.  Yeshua responded to them, “Many good works I have shown you from my Father.  For which of these works are you going to stone me?”  The Jews answered him saying, “We are not going to stone you for any good work but for blasphemy, and because you, being a man, make yourself out to be God.”  Yeshua answered them, “Has it not been written in your Torah, ‘I said you are Elohim?’  If it (the Torah) called those to whom the word of God has come Elohim, and the scripture cannot be loosed (i.e., abrogated), how do you say concerning the one the Father set apart (sanctified) and sent into the world, ‘You commit blasphemy,’ because I have said, ‘I am the son of God’?  If I am not doing the works of my Father, do not believe me.  But if I am doing (them) and you did not believe me, believe the works so that you might come to understand and believe that the Father is in me and I am in him.”  Then they again tried to apprehend him, but he went out from their grasp.²

The critical reference is to Psalm 82:6a.  No accurate understanding of this citation in the gospel of John is possible without a detailed examination of the entire psalm.

Psalm 82³ Analysis

.5s;a;l] r/mz“mi  1

.fPov]yI μyhiloaÖ br<q,B] laeAtd"[}B' bX;nI μyhiloa‘

A melody by Asaph

God is taking His stand in the congregation of the mighty

In (their) midst God will execute judgement.

Asaph was a Levite who was one of the chief musicians during the time of David according to 1 Ch 6:24, and 11 psalms are attributed to him personally.  In addition, a number of psalms are ascribed to the sons of Asaph (5s;a; ynEB]), who were either physical descendants of Asaph or those who followed his style.

bX;nI μyhiloa‘   Structurally this is a verbless clause with μyhiloa‘ as the subject and bX;nI as the predicate.  bX;nI is a niphal participle of the root bxn.  Frequently, the participle form of classical Hebrew is translated into English with the simple present tense, but this rendering is not strictly correct according to the syntax of classical Hebrew.  (This constitutes one of the major differences between the modern and classical languages.)  laeAtd"[}B' is an adverbial prepositional phrase identifying where God takes his stand.  laee can refer either to a pagan god, the true God, physically powerful people, or individuals having official rank.⁴  The subsequent verses indicate that human authorities are the subject of this psalm.  The image presented is that God stands up in the midst of those who have the authority of judgment within the society of men, and He will judge them (those in authority) for the way in which they have exercised their authority. 

The parallel clause has two possible syntactic divisions and three possible interpretations:

• The first possibility is the most common and supported by the LXX⁵:  In the midst of gods He will judge.
• The second possibility is based on the same syntactic division but interprets the term μyhiloaÖ as human rulers who are direct representatives of God to the people.  See the discussion on the use of this term under verse 6 below.
• The third possibility divides the syntax differently: In the midst God will judge.  This division corresponds to the Masoretic accents for the clause.

fPov]yI μyhiloaÖ br<q,B]   br<q,B] is most commonly a preposition meaning ‘in the midst of.’ In normal prose, br<q, is literally a noun meaning ‘inward part,’ br<q,B] is literally a prepositional phrase meaning ‘in the midst.’  Usually it occurs as the governing word of a construct chain, but this is not necessary.  The resulting meaning is ‘In (their) midst God will judge’ or 'in the midst of gods He will judge.'   μyhiloaÖ (understood as the God of Israel) is the subject of the first clause, and parallelism implies that this God should be the subject of this clause.  Similarly, laeAtd"[}B' is the predicate of the first clause, and this same group must form the predicate of this second clause.  Now, either the object is implied by parallelism (see verse 4 for a clear example), or the phrase μyhiloaÖ br<q,B] is equivalent to laeAtd"[}B';;;;.  According to the LXX interpretation, both expressions refer either to a council of supernatural beings or to a group of humans having official authority.⁶  The question on the interpretation of laeAtd"[}B' and μyhiloaÖ here must be resolved by the descriptions in verses 2 through 5 and verse 7.

.hl;s,AWac]Ti μy[iv;r“Ayn´p]W lw<[;AWfP]v]Ti yt'm;Ad['  2

How long will you judge (with) injustice

And (even) lift up the faces of the wicked – selah.

yt'm;Ad['    This expression is a compound adverb having the force of ‘until when’ or ‘for how long’.  The combination functions as an interrogative particle.

lw<[;AWfP]v]Ti   The verb form is a simple 2mp qal imperfect of the root fpv.  lw<[; is a noun meaning ‘injustice, unrighteousness.’  Apart from the introductory adverb and the second half of the verse, this would mean ‘you judge unrighteousness,’ which is just what judges are supposed to do.  The parallel clause in the second half of the verse indicates that their judgement consists in vindicating the wicked, not protecting the helpless and the victims of the wicked.  This interpretive difficulty implies that the straightforward rendering of the words does not supply the intended meaning.  Context requires what would be an adverb in English, but classical Hebrew had few adverbs.  Instead, the infinitive absolute and sometimes substantives were used with adverbial force.⁷  The noun lw<[; occurs less than 30 times in the Hebrew scriptures, and standard classical lexicons do not attest the adverbial use, but that appears to be demanded by the present context – i.e., unjustly.

Wac]Ti yn´P]   This expression is usually positive.  (Compare Gen 40:13, and contrast Gen 40:19.)  The expression ‘lift someone’s face’ usually refers to vindication of that person.  In this case, the ones vindicated are the wicked, and the helpless are the ones being subjugated.

.WqyDIx]h' vr:w: ynI[; μ/ty:w“ ld"AWfp]vi  3

Execute justice for the weak and the orphan

Vindicate the poor and the afflicted.

Deut 1:17 specifically indicates that judges must not pervert justice on the basis of the individual or accept a bribe; both Numbers and Deuteronomy repeatedly emphasize the responsibility of individual Israelites to safeguard the well being of those who are helpless, particularly widows and orphans.  The specific reason for guarding the purity of judgement is aWh μyhiloale fP;v]Mih' yK (because judgement belongs to God).  Thus, those who stand in judgement within the society stand as God’s representatives, and perversion of justice brings reproach on God himself.

.WlyXih' μy[iv;r“ dY"mi ˆ/yb]a,w“ ld"AWfL]P'  4

Deliver weak and poor,

Snatch (them) out of the hand of the wicked.

ˆ/yb]a,w“ ld"AWfL]P'   The verb form is an mp piel imperative of flP meaning ‘deliver, cause to escape.’  This first clause includes an indefinite compound direct object that constitutes a class category: the judge is responsible to protect the welfare of all those who are incapable of protecting themselves (the weak, the poor, the stranger).  This same compound object applies by implication to the verb in the parallel clause.  The verb form is an mp hiphil imperative of lxn meaning ‘rescue, snatch away.’

.6r<a; ydEs]/mAlK; Wf/MyI WkL;h't]yI hk;v´j}B' Wnybiy: alOw“ W[d“y: alO  5

They do not know, nor do they discern

They walk about in darkness.

All foundations of earth (the land) are shaken.

This verse contains three clauses, each of which contains a 3mp imperfect verb form.  Assuming parallelism as the basis for interpretation, all three clauses must relate to some aspect of the same concept.  First, all three verbs are taken as gnomic in force (i.e., expressing habitual action or a persistent condition).  The first two clauses are clearly parallel in content.  The subject is obviously wicked judges or rulers.  Their lack of understanding and discernment relates to the consequences of their unrighteous rulings, and this is equated to walking about (descriptive of their conduct in life) in blind darkness.⁸ 

The connection of the third clause in the verse is not immediately obvious.  However, God’s intended structure of human society (especially in ancient Israel) as outlined in numerous passages of Numbers and Deuteronomy included human judges and other leaders to provide a safeguard for the weak and to ensure equity between individuals.  If those leaders are corrupt or wicked, this foundation totters resulting in general chaos.  As underscored by the entire history of Israel, this condition brings God’s judgment not just on individual leaders who are guilty but on the entire society, because corruption at the top infects all parts of a society.  Thus, the foundations of the land totter.

Historically, this applies both to Israel as the first covenant community and subsequently to the gentile church, which has become a beneficiary of the New Covenant made with Israel.  Israel was called to be a kingdom of priests and a nation set apart (Ex 19:6, Num 23:9, Deut 32:8, 9).  A priest is a mediator between God and other people who are not priests.  That is, the priest presents the gifts, offerings, and needs of those people to God, and he presents the judgements and instructions of God to those people he represents.  Israel had the Aaronic priesthood for its internal needs, but Israel corporately was to be the priest of God for the nations.  Israel as a nation has never effectively fulfilled that role up to the present time.  At first they persistently sought to become ‘like all other nations.’  After the Babylonian captivity, they became an insular people that often refused to have meaningful dealings with any Gentile.  As such, they shut up access to the kingdom of heaven from others and refused to enter themselves (cf., Mat 23:13).  The role of ‘a royal priesthood and holy nation’ (1 Pet 2:8-10) was subsequently applied by Peter to the combined body of believers in Yeshua, which was composed of both Gentiles and Jews at that time.  As such, their responsibility is identical to that originally given to Israel, except now Israel is one of the nations to be wooed back to the biblical expression (not Talmudic) of their faith in God.  In general, the Gentile Christian church has also failed miserably in this particular role over the past 2000 years, especially with respect to Israel.

.μk,L]Ku ˆ/l[, ynEb]W µt,a' μyhIlOa‘ yTIr“m'a;AynIaÄ  6

I have said, “You are (represent, stand in the place of) God

And all of you are the sons of the Most High.”

yTIr“m'a;AynIaÄ    Because the person and number of the subject is identified by the verb form, this construction lays special emphasis on the pronoun ynIaÄ.  But who is speaking? In at least two places (Ex 3:16 and 7:1) God stated that a mortal man stood in the place of God relative to other men, and only God’s own assessment in such a matter can have any significance.  Consequently, Asaph appears to be speaking for God at this point.  That is, Scripture asserts that judgment belongs to God, so those who have judgmental authority on earth are God's personal representatives.  In that sense, I (God) have said (in the scriptures) you are God.

µt,a' μyhIlOa‘   Structurally this is a verbless clause that is translated ‘you are gods’ by the LXX.⁹  The noun μyhIlOa‘ is a plural form, but it can have either a plural or a singular meaning depending on context.  (This usage of μyhIlOa‘ does not exist in any Indo-European language, and within the Semitic language family it exists only in Hebrew or in texts influenced by the Hebrew scriptures.)  The ordinary translation is based on the assumption that no mere man or group of men can be called God, but in both Ex 4:16 and 7:1 God told Moses that he stood as God relative to other humans.¹⁰  In addition, human judges are designated as μyhIlOa‘ in the Hebrew text of Exodus 21:6 and Ex 22:7.  The parallel element to μyhIlOa‘ in the next clause is ˆ/l[,.  This word occurs 29 times in the Hebrew scriptures.  It is clearly a title for God in every instance but possibly this one.  It is possible that Asaph is merely being sarcastic.  The other possibility is that these rulers and judges stand before the people under their authority as representatives of God (ˆ/l[, ynEB] ­– sons of the Most High) and so bear His authority within that society.  The latter interpretation has been taken here.

.WlPoTi μyrIC;h' dj'a'k]W ˆWtWmT] μd:a;K] ˆkea;  7

However, you shall die like Adam

And you, oh princes, will fall as one.

ˆkea;     This term provides either a strong positive asseverative force (surely) or a strong contrast with the immediately preceding context.  Here, the judges and rulers have the temporal authority of God over their subject people, but they themselves face judgment for their use, or misuse, of that authority. 

ˆWtWmT] μd:a;K]    The first representative of God in this world was Adam, and he was presented with a test on the day in which he was created.  The reward for obedience was eternal life having uninterrupted fellowship with his creator; the penalty for disobedience was death – whatever that might be.¹¹  Throughout the Hebrew scriptures, the expression μd:a; yneB], ‘sons of Adam,’ is used as an equivalent of ‘human;’ but depending on context, the term μd:a; alone may be understood as a reference to Adam himself.  The point of this comparison is not that these human rulers merely are mortal but that they will experience the judicial execution of the death penalty just as Adam did.  They have defamed God by the misuse of their authority over the weak and helpless, and so they will experience the full fury of Gods avenging wrath.

WlpoTi μyrIC;h' dj'a'k]W    The verb in this clause is a 2 mp qal imperfect of lpn, and the subject is clearly the wicked judges.  μyrIC;h' dj'a'k]W is more difficult.  The obvious rendering, ‘and like one of the princes,’ should be equivalent to μd:a;K] in some respect.  There are two difficulties with this interpretation: 1) There is nothing in the prior context to suggest who this one of the princes might be unless it is Adam himself; 2) There is no indication why this one is falling under judgment.  An alternative interpretation is to take dj'a'k] as the direct object of the verb and μyrIC;h' as a vocative in apposition to the subject.  This interpretation is favored by the cantillation accents: As one (disjunctive accent), oh princes, you shall fall (end of verse).  Under this interpretation, the princes are all the wicked judges or rulers, and they will all fall under God’s judgement, not one by one but as a group (all as one).

In my opinion, this verse resolves the question posed by verse 1 and verse 6 concerning who is being addressed.  A council of supernatural beings called gods cannot die like Adam, or human beings in general.  Such may be restrained or imprisoned by God, but they do not die.  As for wicked humans, princes (rulers, judges, and others who misuse their authority) will finally all meet their destruction under the judgment of God.  This will find its ultimate fulfillment in the final judgment after which their fire will not be quenched and their worm will not die forever (Is 66:24).  (Note:  There is no time or cultural limitation on this judgment.  It applies to all modern rulers with the same force that it did in the days of Asaph.)

. μy/Gh'Alk;B] lj'n“Ti hT;a'AyKi 6r<a;h; hf;p]V; μyhiloa‘ hm;Wq  8

Arise oh God; judge the earth (the land),

Because you will take a portion among all of the nations.

Evidently, this petition arises from Asaph himself.  In the first verse, God is presented as present in the assembly of the mighty ones and ready to execute judgment in their midst.  Presumably, judgment is to begin in the assembly under covenant with God (Israel and, by extension, the visible body of the Gentile church, which participates in the divine program of salvation through the New Covenant).  This verse extends the plea for judgment to 6r<a;h;, which could refer either to the land of Israel specifically or to the entire world.  The second half of the verse indicates that 6r<a;h; refers to the entire world and all of its peoples.  Israel is God’s particular inheritance, but both the Torah and the prophets indicate that God’s ultimate purpose extends beyond Israel to all peoples of the earth.

Psalm 81 – LXX Text¹²

1        Ψαλμο ς Aσαφ

ο  θεος  εστη εν συναγωγη  θεων,

εν μεσω  δε θεους διακρινει

A psalm of Asaph

God takes his stand in the congregation of gods

And in the midst of gods He will judge

2        εως  ποτε  κρινετε αδικια 

και  προσωπα  αρμαρτωλων λαμβανετε;  διαψαλμα.

Until when do you judge wickedness

And receive the faces of sinners.        selah

3       κρινατε  ορφανον και  πτωχον,

ταπεινον και  πενητα δικαιωσατε:

Execute justice for the orphan and the beggar

Vindicate the humble and the poor

4       εξελεσθε  πενητα και  πτωχον,

εκ  χερος αμαρτολου ρουσασθε.

Deliver the humble and the beggar

Rescue (them) from the hand of sinners

5       ουκ εγνωσαν ουδε  συνηκαν,

εν σκοτει διαπορεονται:

σαλευθησοναι   παντα τα θεμελια της γης.

They do not know, nor do they perceive

They walk about in darkness

All the foundations of the land will be shaken

6       εγω ειπα  θεοι εστε 

και υιοι υψιστου  παντες

I said, “You are gods,

And (you are) all sons of the Most High.

7        υμεις δε  ως  ανθρωποι αποθνησκετε 
 και ως  εις των αρχοντων  πιπτετε.

“But you will die like men,

And you will fall like one of the rulers.”

8        αναστα o θεος, κρινων την γην,

οτι συ κατακληρονομησει  εν  πασιν τοις  εθνεσιν.

Arise oh God; judge the land

Because you will take an inheritance in all of the nations.

The LXX text follows the MT closely, and the Greek vocabulary generally provides a very literal translation of the Hebrew words.  The following deviations can be noted:

In the first clause of verse 1, the LXX changes the singular form lae to the form θεων (genitive plural).

In the second clause of verse 1, μyhiloaÖ is interpreted as a genitive bound in a construct chain rather than the subject of the verb.

In the second clause of verse 2, the LXX uses λαμβανετε (take, receive) as the translation for WacTi (lift, carry, take).  This is a possible translation, but it does not fit the present context very well.

In the first clause of verse 7, the LXX uses ως  ανθρωποι as the translation for μd:a;K].   As before, this is a possible rendering of the text, but in my opinion it misses the point of the psalm.  The second clause renders the text ‘like one of the rulers’ without resolving the problem of the ambiguous reference.

Significance of the Reference in John 10:30­­─39

In the context of this passage, Yeshua claimed to be God (I give life) or equal with God several times (the Father and I are one).  These claims were not lost on his hearers.  Their immediate reaction was to look for stones in order to put Yeshua to death for blasphemy.  Their actions were based on Exodus 22:27 (You shall not treat God with disrespect) and Leviticus 24:11 (A man who cursed the name of YHWH was stoned at the specific command of God).  The problem was not their zeal for the name of God but that their zeal was not expressed in accordance with God’s Torah.  According to Lev 24:11 ff, the man in question was taken into custody, and Moses inquired of God what should be done.  The general instruction for such a circumstance is in Deut 17:2 ff: One who discovers the misdeed of another is to determine the facts and then bring the malefactor before the elders for judgement.  In no case was spontaneous stoning permitted under Torah.  Yeshua's defense of himself had two aspects: First, fidelity to torah; Second, his position before God.

Torah Fidelity.  Yeshua quoted Ps 82:6a expecting that the people surrounding him would all know the entire context.  This psalm is addressing those who are in positions of authority and warns them that God will hold them accountable for how they use that authority.  Those who confronted Yeshua did not have either the authority or the right to impose a death sentence, even if the person in question was guilty.  The context of Deut 17:2 ff. identifies the crime as ‘a person who does evil in the sight of the Lord by transgressing the covenant.’  Yeshua’s response is based on this same standard: “Examine my works.  If my works are in accordance with the revealed will of God, believe the works, even if you do not believe me.”

Position before God.  Psalm 82:6 specifically designates that those identified as judges are direct representatives of μyhIlOa‘, and they are designated as ˆ/l[, ynEB] whether they are personally worthy of that status or not.  There is no indication in the text that any of those confronting Yeshua actually were members of the Sanhedrin, but by attempting to stone him they took upon themselves the roles of judge and executioner.  Yeshua's direct point of argumentation was that scripture designated them as μyhIlOa‘, but he only claimed the lesser designation of  μyhIlOa‘ ˆBe.  His claim of being uniquely set apart and sent by God was validated by the works he did; their claim of being legitimate judges was invalidated by their deeds, opening them to the threat of sudden judgement according to Psalm 82:7.

God's Ideal for Judge

In Ps 82 Asaph condemned the actions of unjust judges.  Various passages in Numbers and Deuteronomy give summary descriptions of how a judge is to conduct himself, but Isaiah 11:1-5 defines God’s ideal for a judge.  According to Dan 7:14, Mat 11:27, 28:18, and others, all authority in heaven and earth has been handed over to Yeshua because he fulfills this ideal in himself:

.hr<p]yI wyv;r:V;mi rx,n<w“ yc;yI [z"GEmi rf,jo ax;y:w“  1

A branch shall come out from the stem of Jesse, and a sprout from his root shall be fruitful.

hn:ybiW hm;k]j; j"Wr hwhy j"Wr wyl;[; hj;n:wi“  2

.hwhy ta'r“yIw“ t['D" j"Wr hr:Wbg“W hx;[e j"Wri 

And the Spirit of YHWH will rest upon him, the Spirit of wisdom and discernment;

The Spirit of counsel and of might, the Spirit of knowledge and the fear of YHWH.

hwhy ta'r“yIB] /jyrIhÄw“  3

.j"yki/y wyn:z“a; [m'v]mil]Aalow“ f/Pv]yI wyn:y[e haer“m'l]Aalow“ 

And his delight will be in the fear of YHWH,

And he will not judge by the sight of his eyes,

And he will not reprove by the hearing of the ears

6r<a,AywEn“['l] r/vymiB] j"yki/hw“ μyLiD" qd<x,B] fp'v;w“  4

.[v;r: tymiy: wyt;p;c] j"Wrb]W wyPi fb,veB] 6r<a,AhK;hiw“ 

But he will judge the poor with righteousness

And decide with fairness for the afflicted of earth

And he will smite earth with the staff of his mouth

And with the breath of his lips he will slay the wicked.

.wyx;l;jÄ r/zae hn:Wma‘h;w“ wyn:t]m; r/zae qd<x, hy:h;w“  5

And righteousness shall be the girdle of his loins,

Even truth the girdle of his loins.

CONCLUSION

This post examined Yeshua's citation from Psalm 82:6 found in John 10:34.  He assumed that those preparing to stone him would know not merely this verse but the entire context of the psalm quoted.  Psalm 82 is an indictment of unjust judges, whom the author asserts serve as direct representatives of God before the people.  Because their actions besmirch the character of God, God will execute profound judgment on them.  With his citation of Psalm 82:6a, Yeshua is asserting that those confronting him are putting themselves in the place of the unjust judges in the psalm.  In so doing, they are assuming the role of personal representatives of God – 'You are God' – whereas Yeshua merely claims the lesser title of son of God.  They are ready to condemn him to death in a manner contrary to Torah, but he demands that they examine him consistently with Torah.  His assertion was that by examining his works in the light of scripture they might come to realize that the claims he makes for himself are true and valid.

NOTES

In my original article, the Greek text had all of the proper diacritical marks, and the footnotes were all at the bottom of individual pages.  Unfortunately, the blog editor does not support these niceties.

1  Η Καινη Διαθηκη, Dallas Theological Seminary, Secondum Exemplar Oxionense, Anno M.DCCC.XXV. Editum, pp. 231 f.  This text was chosen because no textual variant reading is relevant to the point to be discussed.

2  Translation mine.  Note that the Greek term nomos (law) is used in this passage to refer to the entire body of the Hebrew scriptures.

3  Biblia Hebraica.  Suttgart: Württemburgische Bibelanstalt, 7^th edition, 1951.

4  A Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament, by Francis Brown, S. R. Driver, and Charles Briggs, (Oxford: Clarendon Press, reprinted 1974), s.v.  ‘lae.’  (Identified hereafter as BDB.)  BDB was the source for all lexical references.

5  Septuaginta, two volumes.  Edited by Alfred Rhalfs. Stuttgart: Württembergische Bibelanstalt, 1935.  Reprinted, 1971. Psalm 81:1; translation mine.

6  BDB, p. 43, s.v. μyhiloaÖ.  In Ex 21:6, 22:7, 8, the term μyhiloaÖ is clearly used to refer to human judges and is so rendered in standard English translations.

7  Gesenius’ Hebrew Grammar, ed. by E. Kautzsch, translated by A. E. Cowley (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1970), § 100.c.

8  See John 3:19­­─21 and 8:12 for the examples in which habitual sin is equated with walking in the dark.  See also John 10:39: ‘I have come into the world for the purpose of judgment, in order that those who are blind will see and those who see will become blind.’  See Ecc 2:14 where the fool is described as one walking in darkness.

9  Ibid., Septuaginta, Psalm 81:6.

10  Exodus 4:16 – μyhIlOale wOLAhy<h]Ti  – as God relative to Aaron; Exodus 7:1  – h[or“p'l] μyhilOa‘ ÚyTit'n“ – as God relative to Pharaoh.  Note also that the term μyhIlOa‘h; is used in Ex 21:6, 22:7, 8 to refer to human judges.

11  According to the biblical narrative in Genesis 2, Adam’s assignment was set before any human had ever died, so Adam could not have had any experiential knowledge of death.

12  Ibid., Septuaginta. Translation mine.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testamemnt, by Francis Brown, S. R. Driver, and Charles Briggs.  Oxford: Clarendon Press, reprinted 1974.

Biblia Hebraica.  Suttgart: Württemburgische Bibelanstalt, 7^th edition, 1951.

Gesenius’ Hebrew Grammar, ed. by E. Kautzsch, translated by A. E. Cowley.  Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1970.

[1] Η Καινη Διαθηκη, Dallas Theological Seminary, Secondum Exemplar Oxionense, Anno M.DCCC.XXV. Editum.

Septuaginta, two volumes.  Edited by Alfred Rhalfs. Stuttgart: Württembergische Bibelanstalt, 1935.  Reprinted, 1971.