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Wednesday, July 10, 2019

Ecclesiastes Chapter 4 - Strife and rivalries (Part 1)

FOREWORD


This chapter contains three vignettes dealing with how people interact with one another.  Each vignette describes an action, attitude, or conduct that is just as common today as it was when the text was first written.  Additionally, verse 4:17 begins a fourth vignette that continues into chapter 5.  Consequently, this verse will be considered with the content of that chapter.

Chapter 4

vm,V;h' tj'T' μyci[}n" rv,a} μyqivu[}h;AlK;Ata, ha,r“a,w: ynIa} yTib]v'w“ 1
.μjen"m] μh,l; ˆyaew“ j'Ko μh,yqev][o dY"miW μjen"m] μh,l; ˆyaew“ μyqivu[}h; t['m]DI hNEhiw“
So I returned and considered all of the oppression that is done under the sun.  Behold, the tears of the oppressed, and there was no one to comfort them; and there was strength from the hand of the ones oppressing them, but there was no one to comfort them.

ha,r“a,w: ynIa} yTib]v'w“ Formally, this verbal string consists of a 1cs qal perfect of bwv followed by a 1cs imperfect with vav consecutive of har.  The combination constitutes a hendiadys, and the presence of the 1cs personal pronoun between the two verbs is emphatic. μyqivu[}h;AlK; is the definite direct object of the second verb in the pair.  The term μyqivu[} is formally a mp form of qWv[;.  The singular form occurs just once in the Hebrew bible and is rendered ‘extortioner, oppressor;’ the plural form occurs three times and is rendered as an abstract noun: ‘extortion, oppression.’  The focus is what is being done under the sun between people.

The second half of the verse consists of four verbless clauses that are structurally parallel but describe opposite sides of a single type of conflict.  The first pair draws attention to the reaction of those who are oppressed.  The only response described is that of tears – h[;m]di – whether prompted by pain, sorrow, anger, or frustration.  Solomon’s observation concerning the oppressed - μjen"m] μh,l; ˆyaew“ – suggests that not only are the oppressed ones alone and helpless, but that nobody else cares, helps, or sympathizes with them, at least not in any meaningful way. The second pair examines those who practice oppression: j'Ko μh,yqev][o dY"miW – ‘And from the hand of those oppressing them is strength.’  This part has been regularly experienced during every generation.  Those who possess strength, whether physical, financial, or persuasive, regularly use that strength to their personal advantage on those who are less strong.  The repetition of μjen"m] μh,l; ˆyaew“ is less expected, but psychologists over the past 100 years have found that bullies, those who abuse others, often are tormented souls who may act out their need for release and relief by inflicting pain on others.

.hn:d<[} μyYij' hM;he rv,a} μyYIj'h'Aˆmi Wtme rb;K]v, μytiMeh'Ata, ynIa} j'Bev'w“  2
So I congratulated the dead who are already dead more than those still living.

μyYIj'h'Aˆmi Wtme rb;K]v, μytiMeh'Ata, ynIa} j'Bev'w“ This clause set up a peculiar comparison that is addressed again in verses 6:3 and 7:1.  j'Bev'w“ is a 3ms qal perfect from the root jbv meaning ‘praise, commend, congratulate.’  The overall expression seems incongruous regardless of which meaning is chosen for the verb root, because the object of the verb – those who are dead – are incapable of receiving any commendation expressed here under the sun.  The living have the advantage of life (verse 8:13); the dead have no further part in anything that transpires under the sun, but neither are they subject to its uncertainties, hurts, and injustices.  In that latter respect – and that only – is the state of the dead better than that of the living from the perspective of those still alive.

hn:d<[} μyYij' hM;he The form hn:d<[} occurs only here in the Hebrew scriptures and has been explained as a contraction for hN:heAd['until now.’  It is not attested in later rabbinic Hebrew, but it is similar to the Syriac (a western dialect of Aramaic) an:d:[e, which is used to refer to a period of time (possibly brief).  The apparent influence of Syriac (or Aramaic) on this book has been one reason for the late date commonly assigned for its authorship.  However, the content of the Hebrew scriptures is too sparse to prove the lack of dialectical variations that goes back to the time of Solomon or before, so the time when Aramaic/Syriac first started to influence classical Hebrew cannot be established with any certainty.

hy:h; alo ˆd<[}Arv,a} ta, μh,ynEV]mi b/fw“  3
.vm,V;h' tj'T'  hc;[}n" rv,a} [r:h; hc,[}M'h'Ata, ha;r:Aalo rv,a}
And better than both of them is one who has not yet existed, one who never has seen the unpleasant work that is being done under the sun. 

μh,ynEV]mi b/fw“ This is one of several common Hebrew expressions for the comparative degree of an adjective.

hy:h; alo ˆd<[}Arv,a} ta, The use of ta, here is extremely peculiar.  ta, may be understood as the preposition ‘with’ or as the marker for a definite direct object.  However, because the stative verb hy:h; cannot take a direct object, it must be understood as a preposition.  Grammatically, the rv,a} must be the object of the preposition.  BDB classifies ˆd<[} as an adverb meaning ‘hetherto, still,’ and as an adverb it must modify the verb of the subordinate clause.  Consequently, the possible force of the verse might be: ‘And the advantage over both of them is with the one who still has not existed….’ Compare this comparison with the expression in verse 6:3.

Wh[erEme vyaiAta'n“qi ayhi yKi hc,[}M'h' ˆ/rv]KiAlK; taew“ lm;[;AlK;Ata, ynIa} yTiyair:w“  4
.j'Wr tW[r“W lb,h, hz<AμG"
Now, I myself have observed every kind of toil and skillful work - that a man’s zeal is more than his friend's.  This too is futile and striving after wind.

ynIa} yTiyair:w“ The verb root har can be used to express  see, consider, perceive,’ all of which are transitive and reflects mental evaluation of circumstances.  The presence of the pronoun following the verb is emphatic.   

hc,[}M'h' ˆ/rv]KiAlK; taew“ lm;[;AlK;Ata Formally, this consists of two construct chains that serve as direct objects for the transitive verb.  Again, the use of ta, is peculiar because both objects are expressed as indefinite phrases.  Both are introduced by lK;.  The construct form of lKo.  lKo is a noun signifying ‘whole, entirety,’ but it is most commonly used to express ‘all, every, each.’  lm;[; is a noun meaning ‘labor, toil, trouble.’  ˆ/rv]Ki is a noun meaning ‘skill, success;’ and hc,[}m' is a noun meaning ‘work, deed.’ Clearly, Solomon had not observed or considered the entirety of work or other activities that are done under the sun, not even during his own day; but he was able to observe a cross-section (every kind) of these activities.  He includes two types of activities in his consideration – toil (work viewed as burdensome or troublesome), and skillful work.

Wh[erEme vyaiAta'n“qi ayhi yKi This clause is intended to summarize the result of his observation with respect to toil and skillful work as it affects relations between people.  The clause is introduced by yKi, which has three major uses – ‘that, when, because (or for).’  The temporal and causal senses of yKi clearly do not fit this context.  The term ha'n“qi is a feminine noun meaning ‘ardor, zeal, jealousy,’ so this same term may be used positively or negatively.  The term Wh[erEme consists of the prefix Ame (from), ['rE (friend), and a 3ms suffix.  The specific force of the expression depends on the preposition, which has a wide variety of specific uses.  Its fundamental meaning is ‘separation from,’ but this construction is also used to express comparison, which semantically is a kind of separation into categories.  So this expression may mean that ‘toil and skilled work’ involve zeal (or jealousy) that produces separation between a man and his friend or that one man's zeal for his labor exceeds that of his friend.  Depending on circumstances, one or both conditions may exist simultaneously.

j'Wr tW[r“W lb,h, hz<AμG Previously I had stated that the term lb,h, is generally used in this book to refer to something that may be observable but proves to be insubstantial.  However, the cases mentioned above are both observable and highly substantial from the standpoint of the persons involved.  In such cases, the translation futile fits the context better than illusory, because this form of separation is generally unproductive in the short term as well as the long term.

./rc;B]Ata, lkeaow“ wyd:y:Ata, qbejo lysiK]h'  5
The fool folds his hands and eats his meat.  (or The fool folds his hands and devours his own flesh.)
.j'Wr tW[r“W lm;[; μyIn"p]j; aloM]mi tj'n: 5k' aloom] b/f  6
One hand full of rest is better than two hands full of toil and striving after wind.

In my opinion, verses 5 and 6 contain two proverbs that present Solomon's conclusion from the preceding four verses.  The translation of the first proverb is somewhat uncertain due to the last word in the verse -- /rc;B].  Most English translations render it as presented parenthetically; however, my translation presented above is equally possible.  The prior context asserted that both oppression and zeal for one’s toil and skillful work produce separation.  If the 'fool' does not participate in this type of activity (toil or skillful work along with the associated zeal), he can indulge himself in peace; however, if he conducts himself as a fool in other respects, he may end up dissipating his own substance because of his self-indulgence.  Verse 5 is neither ambiguous nor syntactically difficult.  Combining the two into a single modern English form: A little rest and comfort is better than hard work with lots of strife.

.vm,V;h' tj'T' lb,h, ha,r“a,w: ynIa} yTib]v'w“  7
Then I returned and considered a futility under the sun.

ha,r“a,w: ynIa} yTib]v'w“ This clause is a repetition of the introductory clause in verse 1, and it introduces a new topic for consideration.  In this case, Kohelet asserts his assessment of the situation in advance: vm,V;h' tj'T' lb,h, -- it is something that is futile under the sun.  Again I have used the term 'futile' rather than 'illusory' as a translation for lb,h,, because numerous concrete examples of this situation have existed and continue to exist under the sun.

/lm;[}Alk;l] 6qe ˆyaew“ /lAˆyae ja;w: ˆBe μG" ynIve ˆyaew“ dj;a, vyE  8
hb;/Fmi yvip]n"Ata, rSej'm]W lme[; ynIa} ymil]W rv,[o [B'c]tiAalo /yny[eAμG"
.aWh [r; ˆy"n“[iw“ lb,h, hz<AμG"
There is a man who has no associate, also he has neither son nor brother.  Yet, there is no end to all of his toil; moreover, his eyes are not satisfied with wealth.  ‘So, for whom have I toiled and denied myself what is good?’  This is also futile and a bad business. 

ynIve ˆyaew“ dj;a, vyE  Literally: There is one and not two  This expression introduces the case of an individual who by choice or circumstance is completely alone.  This solitary status is amplified by three clauses:

·      /lAˆyae ja;w: ˆBe μG Also he has no son and no brother
·      /lm;[}Alk;l] 6qe ˆyaew“ And there is no end to all his toil
·      rv,[o [B'c]tiAalo /ny[eAμG Also his eye is not satisfied with riches

/yny[eAμG The consonantal text is 'also his eyes,' but the masoretic vowel points constitute a k'tiv-k're for /ny[eAμG 'also his eye.'

The next clause expresses the assessment of the hypothetical loner – ‘So, for whom have I toiled and denied myself what is good?  This is similar to the rhetorical question in 2:15 – 'So why have I become so wise?'  If there is no benefit or advantage comparable to the effort expended, then why bother? 

.μl;m;[}B' b/f rk;c; μh,l;AvyE rv,a} dj;a,h;Aˆmi μyIn"V]h' μybi/f  9
Two are better than the one, because they have good profit in their toil.

If rivalries and jealousies produce isolation and a futile existence, verses 9 through 12 present the positive alternative. 

dj;a,h;Aˆmi μyIn"V]h' μybi/f This clause clearly expresses a comparison using numbers to represent individuals.  The peculiar thing is that both μyIn"V]h' and dj;a,h; are written with definite articles, which generally is not represented in an English translation.  Clearly, the comparison is with the one (the solitary individual) and the second (one having a son or brother as a close associate) mentioned in the previous verse.

μl;m;[}B' b/f rk;c; μh,l;AvyE In the previous example, the one expressed exasperation over gaining wealth without having either himself or anyone else as beneficiary of that wealth.  In contrast, the two both have a good return for their toil, as described in the following three verses, each of which presents a hypothetical condition in which the two benefit one another.

./myqih}l' ynIve ˆyaew“ l/PYIv, dj;a,h; /lyaiw“ /rbej}Ata, μyqiy: dj;a,h; WlPoyIAμai yKi  10
For if they should fall, the one will raise up his companion; but woe to the one who falls and there is no second to raise him up.

WlPoyIAμai yKi Life under the sun is filled with uncertainties and potential traps.  Anyone may falter physically, financially, morally, or otherwise.  In this case, the verb is an imperfect plural form, suggesting that both may fall together.  Having a loyal companion facilitates recovery, but the one alone is left to his own resources.  Recovery by the one alone is always much more difficult and may prove impossible.

/lyaiw“ This term does not correspond to any known form in classical Hebrew.  Three possibilities exist:
·      /l yaiw“ (LXX, Syriac, Vulgate) – But woe to him, the one, …
·      /Lyaiw“ (Targum) – Whereas the one who falls …
·      /lyaiw“ corresponds to a dialectical form in ancient Hebrew not otherwise attested.

The interpretation of the LXX fits the context better than that of the Targum, and the existing Hebrew text could be the result of a simple scribal error.

.μj;yE Ëyae dj;a,l]W μh,l; μj'w“ μyIn"v] WbK]v]yIAμai μG" 11
Also, if two lie together they will be warm, but how can one be warm?

Homes in ancient Israel were mostly constructed of stone with plaster on the interior surface, and there was no insulation other than dirt fill.  As a result, the temperature inside a house would generally be nearly the same as the temperature outside.  In the winter only the cooking fire would be available to supply heat, so remaining warm could be a significant issue, especially in winter.  (See 1 Kings 1:1 f.)

.qteN:yI hr:hem]bi alo vL;vuM]h' fWjh'w“ /Dg“n< Wdm]['y" μyIn"V]h' dh;a,h; /pq]t]yIAμaiw“ 12
And if someone (or something) should overpower the one, the two could stand against him (the adversary or adversity); indeed, a cord of three strands cannot be quickly torn apart.

dh;a,h; /pq]t]yIAμaiw“ The verb in this clause is a 3ms imperfect form from the root of pqt with a 3ms pronominal suffix.  The root meaning of this verb is 'prevail over, overpower.'  The subject is unstated and so could be another individual or a catastrophic event.  The object is dh;a,h;, which is in apposition to the pronominal suffix attached to the verb, and μyIn"V]h' introduces the apodosis (statement following a condition) to the hypothetical situation.  The implication is that if the solitary individual can be overpowered by an adversary (or catastrophic circumstance), the two standing together can withstand that adversity.

vL;vuM]h' fWjh'w“ vL;vuM]h' is a definite ms pual participle from the root vlv.  Since this is a passive participle, this construction is generally understood to represent a cord composed of three strands.  This clause should probably be understood as a proverb that summarizes these verses: One alone is bad; a fellowship of two is good, but three is even better.

.d/[ rheZ:hil] [d"y:Aalo rv,a} lysik]W ˆqez: Ël,M,miii μk;j;w“ ˆKes]mi dl,y< b/f 13
A poor wise lad is better than an old stupid king who no longer knows how to accept admonishment.

Verses 13 - 16 introduces a final comparison based on a similar theme.  The comparison is based on at least two individuals – a poor wise lad and an old foolish (or stupid) king – but three or more individuals may be included, depending on how one identifies antecedents to the pronominal suffixes in subsequent verses. 

μk;j;w“ ˆKes]mi dl,y< The term ˆKes]mi is an ms adjective meaning 'poor' that occurs only here in the Hebrew scriptures.  It is used with some frequency in rabbinic Hebrew with the meaning of poor, scanty, scarce.  Here the lad lacks material resources but possesses wisdom.

} lysik]W ˆqez: Ël,M,miii The second individual is a king, old and foolish.  The term lysiK] literally means stupid but is usually translated by foolish.  Though a stupid individual may – and sometimes in the past has – become heir to the throne of various countries, such an individual seldom is able to hold supreme power for long.  This individual is described as old.  If he did not ascend to power as an old man, then in what sense is he stupid?

d/[ rheZ:hil] [d"y:Aalo Prov 11:14 and 24:6 both indicate the value of good counsel, and 1 Kings 12:6-11 describes the consequence of poor counsel.  Either this king has become so demented that he can no longer recognize good counsel or so arrogant that he rejects all counsel.

.vr: dl'/n /tWkl]m'B] μG" yKi Ëlom]li ax;y: μyrIWsh; tyBemiAyKi 14
Indeed, he came out from a prison to rule even though he had been born poor in his kingdom.

μyrIWsh; tyBemi μyrIWsh; is explained as a shortened form of μyrIWsaÄh;, which is a definite qal passive participle from the root rIsa.  The literal meaning of the construct chain is the house of the bound, which is descriptive of a prison.

yKi yKi This is the first example in which clause after clause is introduced by yKi, and sometimes this usage does not fit the standard lexical categories for this word well.  In some instances, the term can be understood as introducing an emphatic force, but most of the time it appears merely to be linking the passages together into a single context.  Here the clauses are clearly describing the origin of the old king.  He had a lowly origin in his kingdom, he had been imprisoned for some unstated reason, and following his release from prison he had risen to the throne by some unstated means.  Aside from the mention of a prison, this could be a parable built from the experiences Saul and David.

vr: This is a qal ms participle from the root vwr meaning 'poor, impoverished.'  This root is uncommon in the Hebrew scriptures but became more widely used in rabbinic writings.  There it was used to describe someone who is lacking either in wisdom or material resources.

 vm,V;h' tj'T' μykiL]h'm]h' μyYIj'h'AlK;Ata, ytiyair: 15
.wyT;j]T' dmo[}y" rv,a} ynIeVh' dl,Y<h' μ[i
I saw all the living who march (piel part. of 9lh) under the sun with the usurping lad that will stand against him (the old foolish/stupid king).

wyT;j]T' dmo[}y" rv,a} ynIeVh' dl,Y<h' μ[ This clause contains two ambiguities.  First, ynIeVh' dl,Y<h' – the second young man – could be the poor wise lad of verse 13, the old king in his youth, or somebody else who has not previously been mentioned.  Second, wyT;j]T' – against him – probably refers to the old stupid king or the one he replaced in his youth, since the antecedent is ambiguous.  The simplest analysis maintains the contrast introduced in verse 13 between the wise lad and the stupid king.

/bAWjm]c]yI alo μynI/rj}a'h; μG" μh,ynEp]li hy:h;Arv,a} lkol] μ[;h;Alk;l] 6qeAˆyae 16
.j'Wr ˆ/[r"w“ lb,h, hz<Aμg"AyKi
There was no end to all the people, to all that were before him (lit., them); yet those who come later will take no pleasure in him, for this also is illusory and striving after wind. 

μh,ynEp]li hy:h;Arv,a} lkol] μ[;h;Alk;l] 6qeAˆyae This clearly refers to some kind of popular uprising, but the details are cloudy.  The first clause is relatively simple – there is no end to all the people.  The next clause begins with lkol], and the simplest approach is to take this reference as the same as the reference in the previous clause.  The expression μh,ynEp]li hy:h;Arv,a} lkol]to all that were before them – could express popular support, subservience, or opposition, but the real interpretive question is the 3mp suffix on μh,ynEp]li.  All of the early translations except Syriac keep the plural form, making the overall scenario more difficult to interpret.  The change in the Syriac text reduces the scenario to the poor wise youth supplanting or replacing the old stupid king with overall popular support.

/bAWjm]c]yI alo μynI/rj}a'h; μG" Here μG" is used in the unusual sense of expressing a seeming contradiction.  Although the usurping youth came to power with ultimate popular support, those who come later will take no pleasure in him.  This could reflect the experiences of David during the time of Absalom's revolt.

j'Wr ˆ/[r"w“ lb,h, hz<Aμg"AyKi Here I have returned to the translation of illusory for lb,h,, because the durability of popular support is always something of a temporary illusion for those who depend on it.


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